A Catechism on Covenant Theology

Question 1. What is a covenant?
Answer: A covenant is a sworn bond and alliance between two parties that establishes a relationship between them and defines the nature and obligations of the relationship, binding them together.

Q. 2. What is typically stated in a covenant document?

Covenants typically state the parties to the covenant and its basis, conditions, obligations, promises, threats, and seals.

Q. 3. What are some examples of covenants between humans?
A. Some examples of covenants between humans are those made between kings and their vassals, between friends or peoples (such as David and Jonathan, and Israel and the Gibeonites), and the marriage covenant between husband and wife.

Q. 4. What is God’s covenant?
A. When God makes a covenant with people, he establishes a mutual bond of fellowship with them, takes them under his special care, and promises them eternal life and blessing.

Q. 5. What is the covenant of works?*
A. When God had created man, he entered into a covenant of life with him, upon condition of perfect obedience; forbidding him to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, upon pain of death.

Q. 6. What did man enjoy under the covenant of works?
A. In the covenant of works, God walked with Adam and Eve in the garden, blessed them, confirmed his promise of life by the tree of life, and they served him in accordance with his commands.

Q. 7. Has the covenant of works been kept?
A. The covenant of works was broken by the sin of our first parents and we lost fellowship with God. Outside of grace, all the heirs of Adam are condemned for their sin as treacherous covenant-breakers.

Q. 8. What is the covenant of grace?
A. God by his grace made this covenant with sinners through Jesus Christ. In it, he requires faith as the condition to receive the benefits of Christ’s mediation and promises life and salvation in Christ. In this covenant of grace, sinners are saved by God to be his people, that they might glorify and enjoy him forever.

Q. 9. How did God administer this covenant before Christ?
A. Ever since the fall, God has made his covenant with his people on the basis of grace through Christ. In the Old Testament, God called his people to faith in Christ through promises, sacrifices, and other symbols and ceremonies. God revealed it more and more as he made it with his people under Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and David.

Q. 10. What is the new covenant?
A. With the coming of Christ, the covenant of grace reached its final and permanent form, the new covenant. Jesus provided the basis for the covenant of grace by his death and resurrection. He made the former ceremonies obsolete by fulfilling them and he instituted simpler ordinances, especially the ministry of the Word, baptism, and the Lord’s supper. He also poured out the Holy Spirit in great abundance so that this covenant is held forth in greater fullness and power to all nations.

Q. 11. With whom was the covenant of grace made?*
A. The covenant of grace was made with Christ as the second Adam, and in him with all the elect as his seed.

Q. 12. Who are included in the visible administration of the covenant?
A. In every age since the fall, the covenant of grace has been made with those who profess the true religion and their offspring. This covenant people is the visible church of Jesus Christ.

Q. 13. What are the signs and seals of the new covenant?
A. The signs and seals of the new covenant are the sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s supper.

Q. 14. Who should receive these sacraments?
A. Like circumcision, baptism is to be given once to all covenant members, even to infants, that it may be used by them all their life. The Lord’s supper is to be taken often by all covenant members who can examine themselves and have knowledge of Christ, profess faith and repentance, and are resolved to lead a Christian life.

Q. 15. What is baptism?*
A. Baptism is a sacrament, wherein the washing with water in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, doth signify and seal our ingrafting into Christ, and partaking of the benefits of the covenant of grace, and our engagement to be the Lord’s.

Q. 16. What is the Lord’s supper?*
A. The Lord’s supper is a sacrament, wherein, by giving and receiving bread and wine, according to Christ's appointment, his death is showed forth; and the worthy receivers are, not after a corporal and carnal manner, but by faith, made partakers of his body and blood, with all his benefits, to their spiritual nourishment, and growth in grace.

Q. 17. How should you live as a member of the covenant of grace?
A. We are bound by this covenant to believe in Jesus Christ, that we might be saved, and to obey the God who has redeemed us, according to his commandments. For he has delivered us through Christ that we might serve him without fear, in holiness and righteousness before him all our days. Those who forsake the Savior through unbelief shall be cursed, but those who hold fast to him by faith shall be blessed forever.


* Questions marked with asterisk have answers taken from the Westminster Shorter or Larger Catechisms.

Heinrich Bullinger on Covenant Theology

Heinrich Bullinger was a Reformer who succeeded Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich, Switzerland. His book on systematic theology, published in 1551, is called The Decades, because it is composed of five series of ten sermons each. I have been reading it and came across the following passage on covenant theology and the covenant of grace in particular. (This passage can be found in the midst of his 90-page "sermon" on the ceremonial laws of the Old Testament.)

"And therefore, when God's mind was to declare the favour and good-will that he bare to mankind, and to make us men partakers wholly of himself and his goodness, by pouring himself out upon us, to our great good and profit, it pleased him to make a league or covenant with mankind. Now he did not first begin the league with Abraham, but did renew to him the covenant that he had made a great while before. For he did first of all make it with Adam, the first father of us all, immediately upon his transgression, when he received him, silly wretch, into his favour again, and promised his only-begotten Son, in whom he would be reconciled to the world, and through whom he would wholly bestow himself upon us, by making us partakers of all his good and heavenly blessings, and by binding us unto himself in faith and due obedience. This ancient league, made first with Adam, he did afterward renew to Noah, and after that again with the blessed patriarch Abraham. And again, after the space of four hundred years, it was renewed under Moses at the mount Sinai, where the conditions of the league were at large written in the two tables, and many ceremonies added there-unto. But most excellently of all, most clearly and evidently, did our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ himself shew forth that league; who, wiping away all the ceremonies, types, figures, and shadows, brought in instead of them the very truth, and did most absolutely fulfill and finish the old league, bringing all the principles of our salvation and true godliness into a brief summary, which, for the renewing and fulfilling of all things, and for the abrogation of the old ceremonies, he called the new league, or new testament."

As later writers on covenant theology will do, Bullinger traces the continuity of this covenant of grace from post-fall Adam, to Noah, to Abraham, to the people under Moses, to the coming of Jesus. There has always been one way of salvation for fallen man, one covenant of grace, which was progressively revealed in redemptive history, administered differently before Christ's coming than it is after his coming (as the old covenant and the new covenant). 

Something here (at least in this English translation from 1587) that I appreciate, and have also noticed in John Knox’s writings, is how “league” is used as a synonym for “covenant.” I think league, alliance, and bond are helpful terms to describe the biblical concept of covenant.

Notice also how Bullinger speaks of the Ten Commandments as being published as obligations of this covenant of grace. This makes sense, since they begin by introducing God as our God and Redeemer. They are not a rule by which believers are justified or condemned, but they are the way we ought to live as God’s covenant people, redeemed by his grace.

God's Reign Over Every Sphere of Life - A.A. Hodge

Shortly before his death in 1886, Archibald Alexander Hodge gave a series of popular lectures on theology. This series is available online as Popular Lectures on Theological Themes and are currently published by Banner of Truth as Evangelical Theology. Three of the lectures give attention to the reign and kingdom of Christ: "The Kingly Office of Christ," "The Kingdom of Christ," and "The Law of the Kingdom." I have quoted from the first one here and the second one here. Here I would like to share a couple quotes from the third of these lectures.

He begins by speaking of how the gospel of grace accords with the pursuit of the practice of righteousness in accord with God’s revealed will in the Holy Scriptures. Since our obligation to God is universal and absolute, Hodge goes on to note that God's law demands obedience in every sphere of a person's life. 

"This law, moreover, demands instant and absolute obedience, not only from all classes of Christians, but also in every sphere of human life equally. A Christian is just as much under obligation to obey God's will in the most secular of his daily businesses as he is in his closet or at the communion table. He has no right to separate his life into two realms, and acknowledge different moral codes in each respectively--to say the Bible is a good rule for Sunday, but this is a weekday question, or the Scriptures are the right rule in matters of religion, but this is a question of business or of politics. God reigns over all everywhere. His will is the supreme law in all relations and actions. His inspired Word, loyally read, will inform us of his will in every relation and act of life, secular as well as religious, and the man is a traitor who refuses to walk therein with scrupulous care. The kingdom of God includes all sides of human life, and it is a kingdom of absolute righteousness. You are either a loyal subject or a traitor. When the King comes how will he find you doing?"

He discusses the three uses of the law - to restrain the wicked for the good of society, to convince us of our sin that we might embrace Christ, and to be the rule and goal for the regenerated and progressively sanctified Christian who obey out of love and in the Spirit. Then he goes on to speak of the implications of this obligation for our social responsibilities. 

"Since the kingdom of God on earth is not confined to the mere ecclesiastical sphere, but aims at absolute universality, and extends its supreme reign over every department of life, it follows that it is the duty of every loyal subject to endeavour to bring all human society, social and political, as well as ecclesiastical, into obedience to its law of righteousness. It is our duty, as far as lies in our power, immediately to organize human society and all its institutions and organs upon a distinctively Christian basis. Indifference or impartiality here between the law of the kingdom and the law of the world, or its prince, the devil, is utter treason to the King of Righteousness. The Bible, the great statute-book of the kingdom, explicitly lays down principles which, when candidly applied, will regulate the action of every human being in all relations. There can be no compromise. The King said with regard to all descriptions of moral agents in all spheres of activity, 'He that is not with me is against me.' If the national life in general is organized upon non-Christian principles, the churches which are embraced within the universal assimilating power of that nation will not long be able to preserve their integrity."

What this looks like in practice will vary in accord with each one's place and calling, but it is a project and goal that Christians should share. With the respect to the last sentence of that quote, it might be objected that it is possible for churches to resist assimilation into a national life that is non-Christian. It is possible, but it is also a real challenge. It might be easy for us to underestimate this challenge and overestimate the church's ability to be able to resist these forces, especially if Christian give up the effort to apply Christian principles to their life and culture. The more the life of a community or society is organized upon Christian principles, the better it is for that society and for the spiritual welfare of the people living in it. National life has an assimilating power, and it is better when this is a force for good that encourages faith and obedience, rather than a force that encourages unbelief and unfaithfulness.

Circumcision, Baptism, and the Feasts

In Colossians 2:6-23, the apostle Paul writes about how Christians under the new covenant do not need to adopt the ceremonial ordinances of the old covenant, since they already have the substance of these ceremonies in Christ. Furthermore, Christ has appointed new ordinances like baptism that fulfill the role of the old ones and better fit the present administration of the covenant of grace (Col. 2:11-12). Here are a few brief thoughts on the sacraments and holy days of the old and new covenants (for a more in depth post on this passage, click here).

Circumcision and Baptism

In the old covenant, circumcision was the seal of the righteousness that is had by faith, as well as a symbol of regeneration and repentance (Rom. 4:11, Deut. 30:6, Jer. 4:4). This sign was to be received by professing believers and their infant offspring (Gen. 17:7, 10, Ex. 12:48).

In the new covenant, baptism fulfills the same role. It is a different sign that symbolizes the same things (Col. 2:11-12, Gal. 3:27-29, Acts 22:16). Baptism is now the sign and seal of justification and regeneration and it is to be given to professing believers and their children. God still establishes his covenant with believers and their offspring, to be their God and the God of their offspring (Gen. 17:7, Acts 2:38-39).

As the inability to profess their faith did not bar the children of believers from receiving circumcision in the days before Christ, so that inability does not bar the children of believers from receiving baptism today. Our babies are baptized as heirs of the covenant of grace and members of the visible church, to be raised as such in the nurture and admonition of the Lord (Deut. 6:7, Eph. 6:4).

Festivals, Old and New

The festivals of the old covenant were shadows of the things to come, the substance of which belongs to Christ (Col. 2:16-17).

• The Passover pointed to Christ, our Passover Lamb (1 Cor. 5:6-13). 

• The Feast of Firstfruits pointed to Christ, who rose as the firstfruits of the dead on that very day (1 Cor. 15). 

• The Feast of Weeks pointed to Christ, who achieved lasting rest for his people (Heb. 3-4) and who poured out his Spirit on that day upon his disciples (Acts 2). 

• The Feast of Trumpets prepared the Israelites for the next two events in that seventh month:

• The Day of Atonement pointed to Christ’s atonement for our sins on the cross (Hebrews 9-10). 

• The Feast of Booths pointed to Christ as the true bread from heaven (John 6) and the rock from which comes living water (John 4, 7:2, 37-39, 1 Cor. 10). 

These feasts are profitable to know from Scripture, but the observance of them is no longer binding now that the new covenant order as been established (Col. 2:16). We have their substance in Christ. The holy day of the new covenant is the Lord's Day, the first day of the week, which is the Christian Sabbath. The new covenant feast is the Lord's Supper. Even though these observances are fewer and simpler, yet the covenant of grace is held forth in this age with more fulness, evidence, and spiritual efficacy to all nations by the power of the Spirit.

Infant Baptism

In the old covenant, circumcision was the seal of the righteousness that is received by faith, as well as a symbol of regeneration and repentance (Rom. 4:11, Deut. 30:6, Jer. 4:4). This sign was received by professing believers and by their infant offspring as heirs of the covenant (Gen. 17:7, Ex. 12:48). The sign was given only to male believers and male children, due to the nature of the sign, although both male and female believers and their children were members of the covenant (Deut. 29:10-13).

The new covenant is a new administration of the same promises with greater clarity and power to all peoples in light of the coming of Christ. In the new covenant, baptism fulfills the role that circumcision fulfilled in the old covenant. They are different signs that symbolize the same thing (Col. 2:11-12, Gal. 3:27-29). Baptism is a sign and seal of the forgiveness of sins and regeneration and it is to be given to those who profess their faith in Christ and to their children. 

The infant children of believers today are baptized as heirs of God's covenant of grace, members of the church of Christ, to be raised in the training and admonition of the Lord Jesus. They receive baptism as infants so that from their earliest years they might learn to rely on Christ for their spiritual washing and to live accordingly as saints. 

Baptism has the same significance for children as it does for adults, and its use endures throughout our lives. Both for the infant and for the adult, baptism is intended to represent justification and regeneration in Christ, to exercise and strengthen their faith, and to confirm their interest in Christ and his benefits.

Not everyone who is baptized is undoubtably justified and regenerated, just as not everyone circumcised in the old covenant was spiritually circumcised (Acts 8:13, 23, 1 Cor. 10:1-13, Jer. 4:4). The sign is beneficial to those who use it rightly, embracing the grace symbolized by faith. But in the case of children, this faith need not be professed by them at the time of administration. As the inability to profess their faith did not bar the children of believers from receiving circumcision in the days before Christ, so it does not bar the children of believers from receiving baptism today.

The sign is still valid whether or not the children are regenerate at the time of administration. They may be regenerate already - in fact, as members of the visible church, they should be thought of as regenerate by the judgment of charity unless and until they manifest the contrary by their life. But as children grow, they should be taught the right use of this sacrament, that it might be a means of grace to them. 

Daily Bible Reading

I have seen it argued that the Bible does not command people to read the Bible daily because not everyone would have had their own copy until modern times. It is true that the public reading of Scripture in the congregation was (and still is) important (Deut. 31:11-13, Neh. 8:2-3, 9:3-5, 1 Tim. 4:13). But while reading it cover to cover on your own would have been difficult without a personal copy, you could still recall memorized portions daily - “mentally reading” it you might say. You could recite it to yourself, meditate upon it, sing it, etc.

The Bible teaches that we should remember, meditate, and talk about Scripture every day (Deut. 6:6-9, Ps. 1:2, 119:11, 16, 97). This was done before the days of printing and widespread literacy.

That said, widespread Bible distribution and literacy is a great help to fulfilling this command and should be promoted and pursued. Let us not grow slothful in these days of prosperity, but diligently study Scripture from day to day and keep its teachings on our hearts, for it is the word of God.

"And these words that I command you today shall be on your heart. You shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, and when you walk by the way, and when you lie down, and when you rise. You shall bind them as a sign on your hand, and they shall be as frontlets between your eyes. You shall write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates." 

(Deuteronomy 6:6–9)

The Lamb, the Dragon, the Prostitute, the Beast, and the Bride

“Worthy is the Lamb who was slain, to receive power and wealth and wisdom and might and honor and glory and blessing!” (Revelation 5:12) 

The book of Revelation is a prophetic vision, and as such uses biblical imagery and symbols to present the history it describes and foretells. In the book, we meet “the Lamb,” Jesus Christ, who has ascended into heaven and is administering his reign over all. He judges “the great prostitute,” representing apostate Israel, and he vindicates “the bride” of Christ, his church composed of Jew and Gentile. The “beast” is Rome, both a blasphemous persecutor of the saints which is overcome by Christ and an instrument of his judgment on Jerusalem. The “great dragon” is the devil (12:9) who makes war on the church but has been cast down and bound and will be judged by Christ (12, 20).

The Lamb

Jesus is the Lamb that was slain, who ransomed people for God from every nation by his blood, who now reigns in heavenly glory (Rev. 5). Having conquered, he ascended into heaven to his Father and received the scroll. His death and resurrection enables him now to administer the kingdom and pour out covenantal blessings and curses. The whole book reveals and extolls the risen and ascended Christ, his care for his church, and his rule over all. He is "the faithful witness, the firstborn of the dead, and the ruler of kings on earth" and "him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood" (1:5).

The Dragon 

The “great dragon” is “that ancient serpent, who is called the devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world” (12:9). He sought to devour the promised Christ, but failed to do so (12:4). Following Christ's ascension, the devil was cast down with his angels by Michael and his angels (12:9). Satan is defeated, although not inactive. As much as he can, he wages war on the saints (2:10, 12:17). He worked through the beast (13:2, 4). But the dragon was bound in such a way as to not deceive the nations anymore (20:2-3). He is unable to prevent the spread of the gospel. At the end of the millennium, he will be let loose for a time, but only to be overcome by Christ at his second coming and cast into the lake of fire (20:9-10). 


The Prostitute 

Otherwise likeminded commentators debate whether the great city is Rome or Jerusalem, but I believe Jerusalem is the city in question. “The great city” is the city where our Lord was crucified (11:8), i.e. Jerusalem. It is the same as the “holy city” where the temple is (11:2). “The great city” is also described as “Sodom and Egypt” (11:8) and as “Babylon the great” and “the great prostitute” (16:19, 17:18). The prostitute is seated on a beast that symbolizes Rome (17:9-11), but she is distinct from Rome because the beast eventually rises up and destroys the prostitute (17:16-17). This “great city” is guilty of killing the apostles and prophets and saints (17:6, 18:20, 24), a description that fits Jerusalem especially well (see Matt. 23-24). The immoral prostitute is contrasted with the bride, as apostate covenant-breakers who rejected Christ are contrasted with the true church of Christ. Revelation prophesies the Jewish War (AD 66-70) and the fall of Jerusalem (AD 70).

The Beast

By the 60s, Rome had also begun to persecute Christians. Revelation portrays Rome and its emperors as the beast from the sea with seven heads and ten horns (13:1-10, 18:7-17). The seven heads are interpreted to be seven mountains and seven kings (17:9-11). Rome was well known for being built on seven mountains. Chapter 13 not only describes this beast, but also a second beast, rising out of the earth, described in 19:10 as “the false prophet,” symbolizing either the emperor cult or false religion generally (think of the false teachers in 2-3).

The number of the beast is 666 and it is the number of a man. In languages where letters are used as numbers, as is the case in Greek and Hebrew, you can calculate the numerical value of a person’s name. This practice is called gematria and was used in the ancient world. When Nero Caesar’s name is written in Hebrew, its numerical value is 666. This is not surprising since Revelation 13 echos Daniel 7 where beasts refer to kings/kingdoms (the fourth being Rome) and since Revelation 17:9-11 makes note of the sixth ruler of the city with seven mountains as it describes the beast (Nero was the sixth emperor of Rome; see previous post).

The danger was that people were encouraged to worship the beast and its image (13:12-15). The mark/name of the beast indicated those who worshipped the emperor (14:9, 16:2), just as the mark/name of God indicated those who worshipped God (7:3, 14:1). Compare this to Ezekiel 9:4 and Deuteronomy 6:4-9. To receive the mark was to receive the name, similar to how we are baptized into the Triune name (Matt. 28:18-20). Those who participated in Roman society were expected to worship Rome and the emperor, and to refuse to do so risked exclusion from society and death. Emperor worship was particularly strong in the province of Asia, the home of the seven churches to which John wrote. The mark itself was inherently sinful, a symbol of idolatry, loyalty to a false god. The need to have the mark to buy and sell is not what defined the mark or what made the mark bad - it was pressure to receive the mark. Just because something is required to buy or sell does not mean it is like the mark of the beast.

Even though the beast would blaspheme God and make war on the saints (13:6-7), the beast would be used by God to destroy the prostitute (17:16-17) and overcome by the victorious Christ (17:14, 19:17-21, 20:10).

The Bride, the wife of the Lamb

After the initial vision regarding the seven churches in 1-3, we find a vision of the church in chapter 7 that portrays it as the “144,000” and the “great multitude from every nation.” John heard their number and then saw the multitude. The church is described as the woman and “the rest of her offspring” in chapter 12, those who “keep the commandments of God and hold to the testimony of Jesus” (see also 14:12). The church moved to center stage in chapters 19-22, especially as “the Bride.” To understand “the marriage supper of the Lamb,” it is helpful to remember the parable in Matthew 22:1-14. It is a present and future reality. Revelation 21:1-4 describes the church in glory after the final judgment. Revelation 21:9-22:5 is a vision describing the Bride, the church - not heaven, nor the eternal state in particular, although the church is perfected in eternity, and is currently a work in progress. The invitation is presently open to come to wedding feast, to enter the city, to drink the living waters. 

"The Spirit and the Bride say, 'Come.' And let the one who hears say, 'Come.' And let the one who is thirsty come; let the one who desires take the water of life without price." (Revelation 22:17) 

The Book of Revelation: Date and Context

Last year, I finished teaching a Bible survey course, in which I gave a lesson on each book of the Bible. One exception to this pattern was that I spent two lessons on the book of Revelation. This post is adapted from my first lesson on the book from that series. I plan to add the second part next week [it is now available here]. You can also listen to the recordings of the lessons here. 

Authorship

The book makes it plain that it came from Jesus Christ to his servant John, who wrote it down and sent it to the seven churches that are in Asia (1:1-4, 22:8). John was at this time banished to the island of Patmos on account of the testimony of Jesus (1:9).

This John was the apostle John, who also wrote the Gospel of John and three epistles (1-3 John). The author’s reference to himself simply as “John” implies that he is the well-known apostle John. This is also the testimony of the church fathers in the second century, including two writers from the very churches addressed in Revelation. While some have proposed the idea that this could be a different John, this mostly stems from a dubious reading of a statement by Papias and the different style used in Revelation. 

While the style is a bit different than the apostle’s gospel and other epistles, this is because it is a different kind of writing, a book of apocalyptic prophecy similar to Daniel and Ezekiel (Rev. 1:1, 3, 22:7, 10). Despite the different genre, many of John’s typical themes appear, such as “living water” (John 4:7-15, 7:37-38, 19:34, Rev. 7:17, 21:6, 22:1, 17), Jesus as “the Word” (John 1:1, Rev. 19:13), Jesus as “the Lamb” (John 1:36, Rev. 5:6, 12-13, 7:14, etc.), Jesus as “the Truth/the True one” (John 14:6, Rev. 3:7, 19:11), and Jesus as our “shepherd” (John 10:11-16, Rev. 7:17).

Historical Context

While there is a debate on the dating of this book, I believe John wrote this book in the 60s (c. AD 64), during the reign and persecution of Nero, in light of events that “must soon take place” (1:1, 22:6), including the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. The alternative understanding, which I believe to be incorrect, is that it was written in the 90s in the reign of Domitian.

Arguments for a date in the 60s:

1. The book mentions seven rulers of Rome in Revelation 17:9-10 (Rome is identified by its well-known seven mountains). This passage mentions “five who have fallen,” and these would be Julius, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. It then mentions that “one is,” and this would be Nero (reigned AD 54-68). Then it says “the other has not yet come, and when he does come he must remain only a little while.” After Nero came Galba, who reigned for 7 months. 
2. Revelation 11:1 describes the temple in Jerusalem like it was still standing and in use. “Rise and measure the temple of God and the altar and those who worship there…” Revelation 11:2 also describes Jerusalem like it had not yet been trampled by the nations.
3. In the reign of Nero, there was both pressure to worship of the emperor (especially in Asia Minor) and persecution of Christians by Jews and Romans. 

Addressing arguments for a date in the 90s:

1. Irenaeus knew Polycarp, who in turn was discipled by John. Around AD 180-190 Irenaeus wrote concerning the interpretation of 666 that, “if it were necessary that his name should be distinctly revealed in this present time, it would have been announced by him who beheld the apocalyptic vision. For that was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian’s reign.” While at first it may seem that Irenaeus is saying that the apocalyptic vision was seen near the end of Domitian’s reign (81-96), his statement is better understood to say that John was seen then. 
2. Even though there was pressure to worship the emperor and probably persecution of Christians under Domitian, there was also in the reign of Nero both pressure to worship the emperor (especially in Asia Minor) and well-attested persecution of Christians by Jews and Romans. Under both emperors, their persecution of Christians would have directly impacted Rome itself, but would have influenced policy around the empire (and hostile Jews had been trying to get the Romans to persecute Christians for years). 
3. It is claimed that the church of Smyrna did not yet exist when Paul wrote Philippians (AD 61-62) due to comments that Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, made in a letter to the Philippians. But Polycarp does not actually refer to the time of Paul’s letter to the Philippians, but simply notes that the Philippians knew God at a time when those in Smyrna did not (Paul arrived in Philippi in AD 51). 

Revelation’s prophesied events: primarily about the end times or the 1st century?

While some people approach Revelation as if it said, “this is a book about events that will take place in the final years of the age, in the distant future,” Revelation actually is mostly about events that were going to take place soon after it was written. This is said repeatedly and in different ways.

“The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show to his servants the things that must soon take place.” (Revelation 1:1)

“Blessed is the one who reads aloud the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear, and who keep what is written in it, for the time is near.” (Revelation 1:3)

“Therefore repent. If not, I will come to you soon and war against them with the sword of my mouth.” (Revelation 2:16, see also 2:5)

“And he said to me, ‘These words are trustworthy and true. And the Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, has sent his angel to show his servants what must soon take place.’” (Revelation 22:6)

“And behold, I am coming soon. Blessed is the one who keeps the words of the prophecy of this book.” (Revelation 22:7, see also 22:12, 20.)

“And he said to me, ‘Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, for the time is near.’” (Revelation 22:10, compare this with Daniel 8:26, 12:4, 9)

In the concluding chapters, the book does describe events that follow from the events of the 1st century. It speaks of the millennium (20:1-6), which began in the 1st century but extends far beyond it and culminates with the final judgment and the new heaven and new earth (20:7-21:8). But the book is not primarily about the end times. It is primarily about events that took place soon after it was written.

This does not mean the book is not relevant to us. The prophecies of Jeremiah are still relevant for us, even though they were mostly fulfilled in events that took place in the 6th century BC. The book of Revelation continues to instruct the church about its Lord and Savior and about how to live and trust God amid the challenges of the present day. Additionally, the events of the 1st century are foundational for understanding the present new covenant era.

Original Recipients 

This book was originally written to churches in seven cities (1:4), each of which is given a particular message in chapters 2-3: Ephesus (2:1-7), Smyrna (2:8-11), Pergamum (2:12-17), Thyatira (2:18-28), Sardis (3:1-6), Philadelphia (3:7-13), Laodicea (3:14-22). 

These seven churches were all located in the Roman province of Asia, the western part of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). They are listed in chapters 2-3 in the order one would come to them on a journey beginning on Patmos, which is an island off the coast near Ephesus. These particular letters introduce the terms, images, and concepts of the book and apply them to the 1st century experience of these churches (for example, see Jesus’ coming in judgment in 2:5, 14-16, 22-23, 3:3). These churches faced problems like persecution from its enemies, slander from the synagogues, and false teachers within who promoted idolatry and sexual immorality.

The “angel” of each church, to which these messages are addressed, does not seem to refer to a spiritual being. How would John send a letter to an angel? And what would be the purpose? “Angel” is used here according to its meaning of “messenger” and refers to the preacher, who would read this book to the church. As John writes in 1:3, "Blessed is the one who reads aloud the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear, and who keep what is written in it, for the time is near."

Desire "for" or "contrary to" in Genesis 3:16

I think the English Standard Version (ESV) had Genesis 3:16 right in its 2011 edition and messed up with the 2016 edition when it came to this verse. 

ESV 2011: “Your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.”

ESV 2016: “Your desire shall be contrary to your husband, but he shall rule over you.”

The 2011 translation make more sense on a number of levels, is more compatible with historical exegesis, and is the option most compatible with similar uses of the phrase in Genesis 4:7 and Song of Solomon 7:10. 

This sentence is a reaffirmation of the creation order in the context of the fall. It was indirectly a chastisement, in that they were fallen and this subjection was less voluntary and agreeable. But it was primarily a correction of the woman's waywardness and a mercy that reaffirmed marriage and the fulfillment of their original design. They would not be separated. Man would not be alone and the woman would still be a helper fit for him, under his rule and care.

The basic idea of the preposition in question, אֵל, is that of "toward." Since we are speaking of desire, it is most natural to translate it as "for." When a person's desire is directed toward an object, we say that he or she has a desire for it. 

The 2011 and 2016 translations offer very different meanings. In this context, “for” is a good thing and “contrary” is a bad thing. In Genesis 4:7, sin’s desire was for Cain, and that was bad because sin is bad. A “desire for” is the idea of possessing or having, which is good in the case of a husband and wife (Song 7:10, Gen. 3:16), but not good when sin wants to have you (Gen. 4:7). 

Likewise, "rule" in Genesis is a good thing, but it looks differently depending on what is being ruled. A bad thing like sin will be ruled by being crushed (4:7), while good things like day and night (1:18), a wife (3:16), a household (24:2), brothers (37:8), or Egypt (45:8, 26) will be ruled in a way that provides care, direction, protection, and well-being in a way that befits the particular relationship. Of course, Christ's benevolent rule of his church, exercised with self-sacrificial love, is the ideal for the way this is supposed to work in marriage (Eph. 1:22-23, 5:22-33). 

The pronouncements in Genesis 3:14-19 are actions of God. They are God's response to sin, expressing both his justice and his mercy. They are not merely his description of the situation, except for the "because" clauses in verses 14 and 17. It would be odd for God to make the woman's desire contrary to her husband, but it does make sense for him to reaffirm his design. As Matthew Henry observed, God put enmity between the woman and the serpent, not between the woman and the man. Thank God! 

The Image of God

“Then God said, ‘Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.’ So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.” (Genesis 1:26–27)

What is the image of God? The creation of man is different than anything that preceded it. Man is created with divine deliberation and in the image of God. 

Mankind is the image of God.

God created man in his image, after his likeness. The inclusion of “male and female” means that mankind is made up of male and female and that therefore both male and female humans are made in the image of God.

Notice that God did not make some part of man in his image, but he made man in his image. Contrary to what some say, the image of God is not the soul or the mind or any other part of man, but man. It does not say the soul was created in God’s image, but that man was. Man is made in God’s image and is therefore God’s image.

Mankind is the image of God. This means two things: man represents God and resembles God in the earth.

Genesis 5:1-3 connects the ideas of image and son. The son resembles his father and represents his father. Especially in an ancient household, the son would represent his father and would bear his authority under him. Likewise, Adam was created as a son of God (Luke 3:38), to resemble God and to rule God’s earthly household on his behalf. As Paul said to the Athenians, “as even some of your own poets have said, ‘For we are indeed his offspring.’” (Acts 17:28).

The doctrine of the image of God shows us what you are and what you are called to do. If you learn that a rock is a statue, you know what it is and what it is supposed to do. It is a statue that represents someone and it is suppose to resemble that person.

Mankind represents God.

Man is God’s representative on earth, his vice-regent. This status gives man special dignity and value. By making man with this status, God has crowned him with glory and honor (Ps. 8:5).

Besides sonship, two other analogies probably would have come to mind to the first readers of Genesis. First, in the ancient world, many kings regarded themselves as the image of God, as those who represented and ruled for him. Second, kings made images of themselves to symbolize their authority throughout their kingdom.

As one commentator as put it, “Just as powerful earthly kings, to indicate their claim to dominion, erect an image of themselves in the provinces of their empire where they do not personally appear, so man is placed upon earth in God’s image as God’s sovereign emblem” (Gerhard von Rad). Just as a king might set up statues and flags and images on coins to assert his reign, so God has set up man as a symbol of his royal authority on earth.

And just as a king would take an attack on his images personally, so to mistreat man is to attack God. “Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed, for God made man in his own image” (Gen. 9:6, see also Prov. 14:31 and James 3:9-10).

Since man is God’s representative, he ought to be respected and his life ought to be protected. Humans are owed a basic respect due to being made in the image of God, a respect which includes all lawful endeavors to preserve human life.

In Genesis 9, God explains that murder is wrong because it unjustly takes the life of one who bears God’s image. Biblical ethics provides a reason to value all humans, grounding their right to life not on their level of intelligence, physical abilities, racial identity, or usefulness to society, but as beings made in the image of God.

Contrary to this teaching is the practice of racism, that is, animosity, contempt, or injustice on the basis of race, for all people groups are descended from Adam, made in the image of God. This teaching also forbids abortion and contempt for the life of the unborn, because a person’s right to life depends not on independence or mental capacity, but on his or her identity as a human, made in the image of God. This is not imputed to them at some point in their life. To be human is to be in the image of God. Mankind, like the rest of creation, produces according to its kind. From conception, the child is made in the image of God (Gen. 5:1-3).

So avoid murderous thoughts, murderous and reviling words, murderous acts, and situations that needlessly endanger yourself or others. Use kind and courteous speech to your fellow man and promote peace. Defend and support human life by responsible provision, charity, care for health, self-defense, and supporting the state’s administration of public justice as it seeks to vindicate the dignity of God’s image.

Since you represent God, you ought to resemble him. You ought not misrepresent him, but rather reflect his nature in the earth, doing all to his glory.

Mankind resembles God.

Mankind was created with a resemblance to God. Man resembled God to display his glory on earth. In particular, as God’s representatives, we are made to resemble/reflect him in knowledge, righteousness, holiness, and dominion.

Mankind was created both with the ability to resemble God and an actual resemblance to God. He was made as a rational being with true knowledge. He was made as a moral being with true righteousness. He was made as a religious being with true holiness. He was made as a productive being with true and good dominion.

Dominion is an obvious resemblance in Genesis itself. God has been exercising his power and dominion, working on each day, forming and filling the earth. Now he creates a being who will have dominion over his creation and work the earth. We are sub-creators who image God in our work, resembling him and representing him, working on his behalf.

“The emphasis that is placed upon this dominion and its close relationship with the creation according to the image of God indicate conclusively that the image comes to expression in the dominion and by means of it must more and more explain and unfold itself.” (Herman Bavinck)

Man was made as a rational being with true knowledge. This aspect is pointed out in Paul’s discussion of the image’s renewal. Colossians 3:10, “and have put on the new self, which is being renewed in knowledge after the image of its creator.” Think also of how knowledge and wisdom is discussed in Proverbs, as active in God’s work of creation and as something which man is to take hold of and exercise.

With this knowledge, man can communicate with one another, and reason about and investigate this world. We learn about creation, about ourselves, about God. With this knowledge man can exercise dominion in wisdom in a way similar to God. While man’s knowledge is limited, it is sufficiently like God’s to communicate with God.

Man was made as a moral being with true righteousness and a religious being with true holiness. We find these two traits in Ephesians 4:24, “and to put on the new self, created after the likeness of God in true righteousness and holiness.”

True righteousness is conformity to the moral perfection of God. His nature is righteous. And his moral law is not an arbitrary expression of his whims, but a definition of what it looks like for man to reflect his righteous character. Unlike the pagan gods who expressed human vices on a supernatural scale, the true God is light, and in him is no darkness at all. He is faithful and just. His children ought to be as well.

True holiness is total consecration to God and separation from the defilement of sin. You shall be holy, for the Lord your God is holy (Lev. 19, 1 Peter 1). God is set apart, undefiled, and pure - completely good. He is “inclined to all moral purity and recoils from all impurity of sin.” Mankind reflects God’s holiness by being totally consecrated to God, conforming its will to love and reject what he loves and rejects, demonstrating its devotion to him in worship and service.

Does man’s body resemble God?

While man resembles God in certain ways, he does not physically resemble God, since God is invisible and has no divine body. (Jesus has a body now, but only because he became man in history - the divine nature is spiritual and infinite, without a physical body: 1 Tim. 1:17, John 4).

Nevertheless, our bodies do express these resemblances as instruments. We use our bodies to communicate and apply knowledge, to exercise righteousness and holiness, to take dominion. As Paul said in Romans, our bodies parts ought to be instruments of righteousness. Our bodies do not physically resemble God, but our resemblance to God does express itself through the body. The whole man is the image of God. The whole man ought to obey him and confirm itself to his example. And it is because of the body that we can be visible images of the invisible God.

“The Bible makes man a unity … This living creature, then, and not some distillation from him, is an expression or transcription of the eternal, incorporeal creator in terms of temporal, bodily, creaturely existence - as one might attempt a transcription of, say, an epic into a sculpture, or a symphony into a sonnet.” (Derek Kinder)

That man is made in the image of God does not mean that anything true about us is true about God. You cannot argue that since we have bodies, God has a body; since are male and female, God is male and female; since we are creatures, God is a creature - no! We are made in his image, he is not made in our image. Unlike God, we are physical, visible, and finite. Unlike us, God is invisible, a pure spirit, infinite and eternal in all his attributes. And yet, despite these differences, man is a visible likeness of the invisible God, manifesting his character and glory with our whole being.

The differences between us and God make the resemblances all the more remarkable. Who are we to be called children of God? Who are we to talk to God? Who are we to imitate his work and dominion and represent him in his earth? And yet God has created man in his image, after his likeness, crowing him with glory and honor, setting him above the works of his hands.

Sin distorts the image of God, so that it needs restoration.

Humanity still has some dignity as God’s image, and should be respected as such (Gen. 9:6). Yet man has marred the image and acts contrary to it. In one sense, man no longer resembles God.

The doctrine of the image of God shows us what we are and what we are called to do. If you learn that a rock is a statue, you know what it is and what it is supposed to do. If it gets defaced, it is still a statue, but it does not fulfill its purpose well, and it is in need of restoration.

Man remains a rational, moral, religious, and productive being, but his thinking is blind to God and futile, his righteousness is filthy rags, his religion is idolatrous, and his dominion is ultimately vain and often cruel. Man has false knowledge, false righteousness, false holiness. Fallen man is a glorious ruin, a defaced image.

Humans are still to be respected and their life is still to be protected, but their worth only make their disgraceful depravity all the worse and all the more tragic. Man is still God’s image, but he is an image of God that has been defiled and the devil’s likeness imprinted upon it.

Thanks be to God that he sent Jesus Christ to save his people that they might “put on the new self, which is being renewed in knowledge after the image of its creator” (Colossians 3:10).

“For as when a figure painted on wood has been soiled by dirt from outside, it is necessary for him whose figure it is to come again, so that the image can be renewed on the same material - because of his portrait even the material on which it is painted is not cast aside, but the portrait is reinscribed on it.” (Athanasius, On the Incarnation)

In Colossians 3 and Ephesians 4, Paul speaks of how Jesus restores the image of God in his people by the work of the Spirit, having crucified the old man on the cross and risen again that his people might be raised to new life. Those who follow him are being renewed in the image of God in every respect. The image of God is being re-engraved on the hearts of believers by the Spirit of God. “And we all, with unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord, are being transformed into the same image from one degree of glory to another.” (2 Cor. 3:18)

Jesus is the only hope of restoration. Apart from him, there is only the descent into disgrace and depravity and damnation. You and I must embrace him and his grace.

These truths gives us reason to do evangelism. Out of love and respect for the lost, we bring them the saving gospel, that they might be restored to their ancient glory.

And as those being renewed after the image of your Creator, put off your old manner of life and be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Put on the ways of the new self, being imitators of God. Seek after true knowledge, true righteousness, true holiness, exercising true dominion under God.

Conclusion

“And Jesus said to them, ‘Whose likeness and inscription is this?’ They said, ‘Caesar’s.’ Then he said to them, ‘Therefore render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.’” (Matthew 22:20–21)

Caesar had a claim on the money for the temporal benefits he had provided to his empire, having stamped the symbol of his authority on the coins. But God made man himself in his image, and therefore has a total claim on man himself. Give to God what is his! Give yourself, body and soul, to God, for you a symbol of his dominion. Live as representatives of God, endowed with dignity under him, called to resemble him in everything you do. Hold fast to Jesus Christ, the head of the new humanity, for it is by his grace that you may be restored. He is restoring the ancient glory of man, recalling him to his purpose under God, saving him from his doom, that the glory of God may cover the earth as the waters cover the sea.

America, Bless God

“And it is further recommended, that, together with devout thanksgiving, may be joined a penitent confession of our sins, and humble supplication for pardon, through the merits of our Savior...”
-The Continental Congress, 1778

God Has Blessed America

There are many things we love about our country, from its natural beauty and abundance to the history of its people and their heroic sacrifices and achievements. We treasure our God-given rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, proclaimed by the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Our country truly has been blessed by God in many ways. Compared to much of the world and much of history, our country is incredibly prosperous, powerful, and full of opportunity.

God Bless America

It is good and right that we should ask for God’s blessing. In this way, we acknowledge our dependence upon him and seek his blessings for the present and the future. “Unless the LORD watches over the city, the watchman stays awake in vain” (Psalm 127:1). If we desire the well-being of our country and our posterity, we will pray for the blessing of God upon America.

America, Bless God?

While it is good to call upon God for his blessing, we should not stop there. If someone gives you a gift, you should give them thanks. If someone saved your life, you would feel obligated to them. God has given you - and everyone you depend upon - life and everything. He has made a world full of good things that are beneficial, pleasant, and enjoyable. He sustains his creation and he sustains you. Therefore, you are obligated to God, to give him thanks and be devoted to him. “Bless the LORD, O my soul, and forget not all his benefits...” (Psalm 103:2).

Each of us, and our country as a whole, ought to bless God. And yet, our ingratitude is all too evident. Not only do we often neglect him and his worship, but we break his laws and despise his word. Proverbs 28:9 says, “If one turns away his ear from hearing the law, even his prayer is an abomination.” It is not fair to expect God to listen to us if we do not listen to him. But mankind has repaid his generosity with rebellion and selfishness. Have you given God his due? Have you loved him with all your soul? Have you always loved your neighbor as yourself? We find impiety, greed, lust, pride, and deceit, the root of evil words and deeds. While God is generous and patient, he is a just ruler and will not approve of the guilty.

How Does God Bless?

While God has pronounced a curse on sinners, he delays his judgment, giving time for repentance. He sent his Son, Jesus Christ, to bear this curse so that sinners may be blessed. Jesus satisfied divine justice by his death on the cross and rose again to offer forgiveness and reconciliation with God through faith in him. If you repent of your sins and believe in Jesus as your Lord and Savior, you shall be free from the curse and be truly blessed with him forever.

And so, if we are to ask God for his blessing upon this country, we ought to do so with humble gratitude and faith in Christ, repenting of our sins, endeavoring after new obedience. Let us not presume upon his kindness, which is meant to lead us to repentance.