Ashbel Green and the American Revolution

Rev. Ashbel Green (1762-1848) was a Presbyterian pastor in Philadelphia, a chaplain of the US Congress from 1792 to 1800, and the president of Princeton College from 1812 to 1822. But when the American Revolution broke out at Lexington and Concord, he was a 12 year old in New Jersey. He later wrote of how at the time, boys of ten to fifteen - too young to join the militia - formed units of their own and trained with fife and drum and wooden guns. Green himself was a leader of one these units.

This training proved to be important, since Green first served in the militia during his fifteenth year on an occasion in which the boys and old men were called out for sentry duty. When Ashbel Green turned 16, he became a regularly enrolled member of the militia and became an orderly sergeant. He was called out several times, including for the battles of Connecticut Farms and Springfield in 1780 when he was 17.

Ashbel Green’s father, Jacob Green, was a Presbyterian pastor. While reluctant to leave his pastoral duties for any amount of time, he served as a member of the provincial congress that formed the constitution of New Jersey in 1776 and the chairman of the committee that produced the original draft, having written an anonymous tract arguing for American independence earlier that year. He returned home to his family and flock as soon as the work of the state’s constitution was done.

In 1840, Ashbel Green wrote the following to his son about differences between the American Revolution and the French Revolution (I have inserted the paragraph breaks):

“MY DEAR A.—I have always been impatient, not to say vexed, when I have heard our national revolution and that of France, represented as similar. It is doubtless true, that our revolution had an influence, and a powerful one, in producing that of France. But the agencies, and what may be called the materials, of those two revolutions, were as different as can well be imagined. 

The leaders in our revolution were good men, as well as great men. If there were a few infidels among them, as no doubt was the fact, they were obliged to conceal their infidelity, because it was unpopular. Our people, speaking comparatively, were an intelligent, moral and religious people. They had been brought up under free institutions, and had the habits and ideas which are produced by such institutions. My quotation also from Mr. Jefferson, shows, that in Virginia, a day of humiliation, fasting and prayer, was acceptable to the people at large, and highly influential. This was still more, far more the case with the population of the eastern and middle provinces. In the most of these provinces, days of fasting and prayer were no novelty — they had been of frequent occurrence. The influence of the clergy, moreover, both in and out of the pulpit, was great and commanding; and it was all exerted against the unrighteous claims of Britain. It is also well known, that the old Continental Congress recommended days of religious observance, both for fasting and prayer, and for thanksgiving. Our army, too, had chaplains, to whom the commander-in-chief gave every facility which military operations would permit, for performing the duties of their sacred office. After the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, there was a special religious service, for thanksgiving to Almighty God for the success he had granted to the united arms of America and France. On that occasion, General Washington directed that the whole army not on special military service, should attend; and he exhorted them, in general orders, to give their attendance with all the seriousness and devout feelings suited to the solemnity. 

Of all this, there not only was nothing, in the origin and progress of the French revolution, but something infinitely worse than nothing; that is, there was the absence of all good and the presence of much evil. An irruption took place of the most ferocious and infernal passions that human nature has ever exhibited. The leaders of this revolution, with no exception known to me, were destitute of every thing like religion, or genuine morality. They talked, indeed, of morality, but they openly professed to abhor religion; unless, after the extermination of every semblance of Christianity, the worship of a harlot, in the guise of the goddess of reason, might be called their religion. Many of the leaders, as every body knows, were avowed atheists. Mr. William Bradford, the successor of Randolph, as Attorney General of the United States, and who died in 1795, told me, that Mr. Jefferson said in his hearing, that before he left France, atheism was table-talk with the bishops; and this was a considerable time before the evil reached its height. The populace of France, before the revolution, had been greatly oppressed by their superiors, both civil and ecclesiastical; and had grown up in servility, and the most brutish ignorance. Hence, when their former restraints were removed, and their passions became excited, they raged like infuriated demons. Every enormity of revenge, cruelty, murder, and savage barbarity, reigned in triumph. These enormities are of too recent a date to be unknown to the present generation. They have filled volumes; and I only advert to them generally, to show that those who proclaim a similarity between our revolution and that of France, are justly chargeable with an intolerable misrepresentation and absurdity. As to chaplains in the French armies, he who should have mentioned it, would first have been laughed to scorn, and then condemned to the guillotine. Their priests were sacrificed by hecatombs.”

This letter can be found in The Life of Ashbel Green (1849). This book, and other writings by and about Ashbel Green, can be found online here: Ashbel Green (1762-1848). 

Five Earnest Exhortations from Rev. John Thomson (c. 1690-1753)

John Thomson (c. 1690-1753) was an early American Presbyterian minister. He was born in Ireland, educated in Scotland, licensed to preach by the Armagh Presbytery in Ireland, and ordained as a pastor in Delaware. He pastored churches in Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, and died while engaged in an itinerant ministry on the North Carolina frontier. He was an important figure in the passing of the Adopting Act in 1729, by which the Synod of Philadelphia officially adopted the Westminster Confession and Catechisms. He wrote several books, including An Explication of the Shorter Catechism (1749). You can read this commentary on the Westminster Shorter Catechism online here or order the newly published edition of the book here. 

What I want to share from this book comes from his short epistle to the Christian reader at the end of the book. In that epistle, he gives several concluding exhortations. I have kept the original spelling and capitalization. 

Now, Christian Readers, and dear Souls, for whose Sake I have been at Pains to make this little Collection of Christian Doctrines; whether you be Dissenters or of the establish'd Church, I will shut up this little Epistle, with an earnest Request to you all in the Bowels of Jesus Christ, that you would hearken unto and practise these following Particulars.

First, Make serious Piety and Religion, both as to Knowledge and Practice, your main Study, remembering, that without Holiness no Man shall see the Lord. Heb. 12.14

2dly, Endeavour so to be aquatinted with the Principles of Religion as to have your Faith founded on the Word of God, not contenting yourselves with an implicit Faith on the Credit of any Men or Church on Earth; but labour to search the Scriptures daily, whether these Things be so. Acts 17.11

3dly, As we all profess to adhere to the same infallible Rule, viz. the Word of God, to believe the same Christian Doctrines, to submit to the same divine Law, both Moral and Gospel, to believe in the same common God and Saviour, to adhere to the same Covenant of Grace, to hope for the same eternal heavenly Inheritance; as we have the same common Friend and Enemies, the same Helps and Impediments of our Edification and Salvation, &c.

Let us all cordially endeavour to be united in our Christian Affections and Charity towards one another, as well as true Love towards God; let us cordially strive to imitate, emulate, and encourage one another, in every Thing that is commendable before God, and agreeable to our own Consciences; and let us beware lest our differing judgments and Sentiments in lesser Points of Religion have more Influence upon us, to alienate our affections from one another than our Agreement in the more substantial Parts of Religion can have to unite and cement our Souls together in mutual Christian Love. 

4thly, Beware of sitting down contented with any Measure of Grace or Knowledge that you have attained, but still strive to grow in Grace, and in the Knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 

5thly, Be frequent and earnest in wrestling with God by Prayer, that he may pour out his Spirit, as a Spirit of Power, Light, Love, and a sound Mind, on this degenerate, backsliding Generation, that by the power of his Grace, accompanying the Gospel, he may heal the many dangerous, deadly Diseases of this sinful Age, such as Ignorance, Prophanity in Cursing and Swearing, Sabbath-breaking, Uncleanness, lifeless Formality in Matters of Religion, the prevailing prophane Neglect of Family Religion, and secret Devotion; that he would stir up all Ranks to endeavour to extend and diffuse their Influence for this Purpose, according to their Capacity, Station and Character, especially those in Authority, whether Parents, Masters, Ministers or Magistrates, by their Instruction, Example and Authority. 

O! how happy and glorious a prospect should we have if this were brought to pass! Then God's Salvation would be near us, and God, even our God would bless us: But if it should never be our Lot in this World to see such happy halcion Days; yet still it will be your Wisdom and Interest to strive to be of the few that enter in at the strait Gate, of the little Flock to whom your Father will give the Kingdom; and as the Furtherance of these Things was the main Design of this whole Performance; so it is and shall be the Prayer of one who desires to approve himself the Servant of your Souls, for Jesus's Sake.  

Thomas Gataker on Seeking a Good Wife

Thomas Gataker (1574-1654) was a Puritan minister in the Church of England and a member of the Westminster Assembly. In 1623, he published two wedding sermons, one of which was entitled, "A Wife In Deed" and based on Proverbs 18:22, "He that findeth a Wife, findeth Good; and obtaineth Favour of God." You can read the sermon at this link. In contains many quotable portions. For example, he wrote,

There is much want of comfort then in Solitude; much Comfort in Society. But there is no Society more near, more entire, more needful, more kindly, more delightful, more comfortable, more constant, more continual, than the Society of Man and Wife; the main Root, Source and Original of all other Societies: Which of all others therefore Man is naturally most inclined unto…

He said that a good wife is 

The best Companion in Wealth;
The fittest and readiest Assistant in Work;
The greatest Comfort in Crosses and griefs;
The only warrantable and comfortable Means of Issue and posterity;
A singular and sovereign Remedy ordained by God against Incontinency;
And the greatest Grace and Honour, that can be, to him that hath her.

The portion I particularly want to share in this post is what he said about seeking a good wife. (In all of these quotes I modernize the spelling, but keep original capitalization and italics. I am also not including the marginal references, which you can find in the original.) He wrote, 

But how may a man come by such a Wife, as is here spoken of? may some say: such a one as shall be a means of so much good to him that hath her?

She must be sought; saith Solomon. For finding implieth seeking. And He that seeketh, findeth; saith our Saviour. We must not think, because Solomon elsewhere saith, that Houses and inheritance are of the Fathers, but a good Wife is of God; that therefore no industry is to be used on our part, but that men should lie still, or sit them down, expecting that God should drop Wives down out of the clouds for them, as Towns were said to come into Timotheus his toils, while he slept. No; unless we seek, we are not like to find. And if by seeking we may find, if after much search made, we may light on such an one, we are well.

Such a Wife then must be sought.

And so sent Abraham his Servant to seek a Wife for his Son Isaac. So Naomi telleth Ruth her Daughter in Law, that she will seek out some fit match for her.

There is good Reason to seek such an one in two Respects:

First in regard of the Rarity, the Difficulty. Because such are not easily found. Where may we find such a Man? saith Pharaoh of Joseph, implying that such an other as he could very hardly be found. And, Where may a Man find such a Woman? saith Solomon. As he saith elsewhere of a faithful Friend; Many men will boast, each one of his honesty; but where shall a man find a Friend truly Faithful; one that indeed deserveth that name? So many Women may promise great matters of themselves, or others undertake for them: But it is no easy matter, for all that, to find out a good Wife, one that answereth the Name she beareth. Many Priests, and yet Few Priests too; saith one of the Ancients: many in Name, but few in effect. So many Women, and few Wives, may one well say; few such, among many, as Solomon here entreateth of. Good Wives are rare Creatures, as well as trusty Friends are. And though I dare not say of them, as Elihu of an able Pastor, Solomon of a Wise Man, and some other of a true Friend; One such of a thousand. Yet may I well and safely say, that as well here as else-where, The greater Part exceedeth the better: there is more drossy matter than pure metal; more pebbles than pearls. As the Cynic sometime sought for a Man in a multitude of Men: so may such a Wife as Solomon here speaketh of, be sought, yea and scarce found sometime, among a multitude of Women.

Secondly, In regard of the worth and dignity. It is well worth a man's labour. He need not think much of his search, if he have good success in it. As the difficulty of finding requireth it; so the dignity of the thing sought requiteth it. It is no wisdom indeed to seek after toys and trifles, matters of no moment, that will not recompense a man's pains, when without much difficulty they cannot be had. But a worthy Woman is a matter of worth. She is well worthy the seeking. She is a greater blessing than either House or Inheritance: and her price is above Pearls. And if there be so much seeking generally on all hands after the one, much more may there justly be as much after the other.

But how must she be sought then?

I answer: First by due and diligent consideration of, and careful search and inquiry into the nature, quality, and disposition, and into the life, courses and conversation, of the party motioned or affected for Marriage: whether she be so qualified as a Wife ought to be, and as is fit for one to be that should be thy Wife. For fitness in special, as well as goodness in general, is one main ground of the good and benefit that a Wife is to bring to him, whom she is matched unto.

Secondly, by using the help and taking the advice of Friends. A course especially to be embraced and entertained of those that are themselves unexperienced, or that are yet under the power of others. So did Jacob herein follow his Father Isaac's advice; contrary to the practice of his Brother Esau. And Ruth was content to be ruled by her Mother in Law Naomi, though having not the power over her of a natural Parent.

Thirdly, by seeking unto those that are the Parents or Governors of such as they affect or desire, being yet under the power of such. So did Abraham's Servant deal with the Friends of Rebekah. And Shechem (though he had been before indeed too forward) with the Brethren of Dinah, and with her Father Jacob, by his Father Hamor; the very light of Nature leading and directing them thereunto.

Fourthly and principally by Prayer to God. As did Abraham's Servant, when he was sent to seek a Wife for his young Master: And as Isaac did when he dismissed his Son Jacob with Instructions and charge what course to take concerning a Wife.

For (and so pass we to the next Point) God is the principal Donor here. He that will find a Wife, saith Solomon, must obtain her of God. And, House and inheritance are of the Fathers; but a prudent Wife is of God. From God therefore it is that a Good Wife must be had. 

John Calvin on "the Wondrous Exchange"

In his chapter on the Lord's Supper in The Institutes of the Christian Religion, John Calvin reflects on the wondrous exchange between Christ and believers: 

"Pious souls can derive great confidence and delight from this sacrament, as being a testimony that they form one body with Christ, so that everything which is his they may call their own. Hence it follows, that we can confidently assure ourselves, that eternal life, of which he himself is the heir, is ours, and that the kingdom of heaven, into which he has entered, can no more be taken from us than from him; on the other hand, that we cannot be condemned for our sins, from the guilt of which he absolves us, seeing he has been pleased that these should be imputed to himself as if they were his own. This is the wondrous exchange made by his boundless goodness. Having become with us the Son of Man, he has made us with himself sons of God. By his own descent to the earth he has prepared our ascent to heaven. Having received our mortality, he has bestowed on us his immortality. Having undertaken our weakness, he has made us strong in his strength. Having submitted to our poverty, he has transferred to us his riches. Having taken upon himself the burden of unrighteousness with which we were oppressed, he has clothed us with his righteousness."

John Chrysostom on Reading Scripture at Home

John Chrysostom (347-407) was a noted preacher of the early church, first in Syrian Antioch and then in Constantinople. In his preaching he exposited Scripture, verse by verse, with lively and bold application. He also exhorted the people to discuss and read Scripture at home. Below is one example, taken from a sermon he gave in Antioch (the full sermon can be found here). The sermon is the third in a series of four sermons on the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, but the first part of this sermon is taken up with an exhortation to study Scripture. 

"This, also, I am ever urging, and shall not cease to urge, that you give attention, not only to the words spoken, but that also, when at home in your house, you exercise yourselves constantly in reading the Divine Scriptures. This, also, I have never ceased to press upon those who come to me privately. Let not any one say to me that these exhortations are vain and irrelevant, for 'I am constantly busy in the courts,' (suppose him to say;) 'I am discharging public duties; I am engaged in some art or handiwork; I have a wife; I am bringing up my children; I have to manage a household; I am full of worldly business; it is not for me to read the Scriptures, but for those who have bid adieu to the world, for those who dwell on the summit of the hills; those who constantly lead a secluded life.' What dost thou say, O man? Is it not for thee to attend to the Scriptures, because thou art involved in numerous cares? It is thy duty even more than theirs, for they do not so much need the aid to be derived from the Holy Scriptures as they do who are engaged in much business. ... They rest far from the strife, and, therefore, escape many wounds; but you stand perpetually in the array of battle, and constantly are liable to be wounded: on this account, you have more need of the healing remedies. For, suppose, a wife provokes, a son causes grief, a slave excites to anger, an enemy plots against us, a friend is envious, a neighbour is insolent, a fellow-soldier causes us to stumble----or often, perhaps, a judge threatens us, poverty pains us, or loss of property causes us trouble, or prosperity puffs us up, or misfortune overthrows us;----there are surrounding us on all sides many causes and occasions of anger, many of anxiety, many of dejection or grief, many of vanity or pride; from all quarters, weapons are pointed at us. Therefore it is that there is need continually of the whole armour of the Scriptures. ...

“Many other such things there are that beset our soul; and we have need of the divine remedies that we may heal wounds inflicted, and ward off those which, though not inflicted, would else be received in time to come----thus quenching afar off the darts of Satan, and shielding ourselves by the constant reading of the Divine Scriptures. …

“‘But what,’ say they, ‘if we do not understand the things we read?’ Even if you do not understand the contents, your sanctification in a high degree results from it. However, it is impossible that all these things should alike be misunderstood; for it was for this reason that the grace of the Holy Spirit ordained that tax-gatherers, and fishermen, and tent-makers, and shepherds, and goatherds, and uninstructed and illiterate men, should compose these books, that no untaught man should be able to make this pretext; in order that the things delivered should be easily comprehended by all----in order that the handicraftsman, the domestic, the widow, yea, the most unlearned of all men, should profit and be benefited by the reading. For it is not for vain-glory, as men of the world, but for the salvation of the hearers, that they composed these writings, who, from the beginning, were endued with the gift of the Holy Ghost.”

Heinrich Bullinger on Covenant Theology

Heinrich Bullinger was a Reformer who succeeded Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich, Switzerland. His book on systematic theology, published in 1551, is called The Decades, because it is composed of five series of ten sermons each. I have been reading it and came across the following passage on covenant theology and the covenant of grace in particular. (This passage can be found in the midst of his 90-page "sermon" on the ceremonial laws of the Old Testament.)

"And therefore, when God's mind was to declare the favour and good-will that he bare to mankind, and to make us men partakers wholly of himself and his goodness, by pouring himself out upon us, to our great good and profit, it pleased him to make a league or covenant with mankind. Now he did not first begin the league with Abraham, but did renew to him the covenant that he had made a great while before. For he did first of all make it with Adam, the first father of us all, immediately upon his transgression, when he received him, silly wretch, into his favour again, and promised his only-begotten Son, in whom he would be reconciled to the world, and through whom he would wholly bestow himself upon us, by making us partakers of all his good and heavenly blessings, and by binding us unto himself in faith and due obedience. This ancient league, made first with Adam, he did afterward renew to Noah, and after that again with the blessed patriarch Abraham. And again, after the space of four hundred years, it was renewed under Moses at the mount Sinai, where the conditions of the league were at large written in the two tables, and many ceremonies added there-unto. But most excellently of all, most clearly and evidently, did our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ himself shew forth that league; who, wiping away all the ceremonies, types, figures, and shadows, brought in instead of them the very truth, and did most absolutely fulfill and finish the old league, bringing all the principles of our salvation and true godliness into a brief summary, which, for the renewing and fulfilling of all things, and for the abrogation of the old ceremonies, he called the new league, or new testament."

As later writers on covenant theology will do, Bullinger traces the continuity of this covenant of grace from post-fall Adam, to Noah, to Abraham, to the people under Moses, to the coming of Jesus. There has always been one way of salvation for fallen man, one covenant of grace, which was progressively revealed in redemptive history, administered differently before Christ's coming than it is after his coming (as the old covenant and the new covenant). 

Something here (at least in this English translation from 1587) that I appreciate, and have also noticed in John Knox’s writings, is how “league” is used as a synonym for “covenant.” I think league, alliance, and bond are helpful terms to describe the biblical concept of covenant.

Notice also how Bullinger speaks of the Ten Commandments as being published as obligations of this covenant of grace. This makes sense, since they begin by introducing God as our God and Redeemer. They are not a rule by which believers are justified or condemned, but they are the way we ought to live as God’s covenant people, redeemed by his grace.

God's Reign Over Every Sphere of Life - A.A. Hodge

Shortly before his death in 1886, Archibald Alexander Hodge gave a series of popular lectures on theology. This series is available online as Popular Lectures on Theological Themes and are currently published by Banner of Truth as Evangelical Theology. Three of the lectures give attention to the reign and kingdom of Christ: "The Kingly Office of Christ," "The Kingdom of Christ," and "The Law of the Kingdom." I have quoted from the first one here and the second one here. Here I would like to share a couple quotes from the third of these lectures.

He begins by speaking of how the gospel of grace accords with the pursuit of the practice of righteousness in accord with God’s revealed will in the Holy Scriptures. Since our obligation to God is universal and absolute, Hodge goes on to note that God's law demands obedience in every sphere of a person's life. 

"This law, moreover, demands instant and absolute obedience, not only from all classes of Christians, but also in every sphere of human life equally. A Christian is just as much under obligation to obey God's will in the most secular of his daily businesses as he is in his closet or at the communion table. He has no right to separate his life into two realms, and acknowledge different moral codes in each respectively--to say the Bible is a good rule for Sunday, but this is a weekday question, or the Scriptures are the right rule in matters of religion, but this is a question of business or of politics. God reigns over all everywhere. His will is the supreme law in all relations and actions. His inspired Word, loyally read, will inform us of his will in every relation and act of life, secular as well as religious, and the man is a traitor who refuses to walk therein with scrupulous care. The kingdom of God includes all sides of human life, and it is a kingdom of absolute righteousness. You are either a loyal subject or a traitor. When the King comes how will he find you doing?"

He discusses the three uses of the law - to restrain the wicked for the good of society, to convince us of our sin that we might embrace Christ, and to be the rule and goal for the regenerated and progressively sanctified Christian who obey out of love and in the Spirit. Then he goes on to speak of the implications of this obligation for our social responsibilities. 

"Since the kingdom of God on earth is not confined to the mere ecclesiastical sphere, but aims at absolute universality, and extends its supreme reign over every department of life, it follows that it is the duty of every loyal subject to endeavour to bring all human society, social and political, as well as ecclesiastical, into obedience to its law of righteousness. It is our duty, as far as lies in our power, immediately to organize human society and all its institutions and organs upon a distinctively Christian basis. Indifference or impartiality here between the law of the kingdom and the law of the world, or its prince, the devil, is utter treason to the King of Righteousness. The Bible, the great statute-book of the kingdom, explicitly lays down principles which, when candidly applied, will regulate the action of every human being in all relations. There can be no compromise. The King said with regard to all descriptions of moral agents in all spheres of activity, 'He that is not with me is against me.' If the national life in general is organized upon non-Christian principles, the churches which are embraced within the universal assimilating power of that nation will not long be able to preserve their integrity."

What this looks like in practice will vary in accord with each one's place and calling, but it is a project and goal that Christians should share. With the respect to the last sentence of that quote, it might be objected that it is possible for churches to resist assimilation into a national life that is non-Christian. It is possible, but it is also a real challenge. It might be easy for us to underestimate this challenge and overestimate the church's ability to be able to resist these forces, especially if Christian give up the effort to apply Christian principles to their life and culture. The more the life of a community or society is organized upon Christian principles, the better it is for that society and for the spiritual welfare of the people living in it. National life has an assimilating power, and it is better when this is a force for good that encourages faith and obedience, rather than a force that encourages unbelief and unfaithfulness.

The Three Uses of the Law (Calvin)

In The Institutes of the Christian Religion (2.7), John Calvin described the threefold “function and use of what is called the ‘moral law’” in this way: 

“The first part is this: while it shows God’s righteousness, that is, the righteousness alone acceptable to God, it warns, informs, convicts, and lastly condemns, every man of his own unrighteousness. … The law is like a mirror. ... Yet this is not done to cause us to fall down in despair or, completely discouraged, to rush headlong over the brink - provided we duly profit by the testimony of the law ... that, naked and empty-handed, they flee to his mercy, repose entirely in it, hide deep within it, and seize upon it alone for righteousness and merit.” 

“The second function of the law is this: at least by fear of punishment to restrain certain men who are untouched by any care for what is just and right unless compelled by hearing the dire threats in the law. … this constrained and forced righteousness is necessary for the public community of men … the law is like a halter to check the raging and otherwise limitlessly ranging lusts of the flesh.”

“The third and principal use, which pertains more closely to the proper purpose of the law, finds its place among believers in whose hearts the Spirit of God already lives and reigns. … Here is the best instrument for them to learn more thoroughly each day the nature of the Lord’s will to which they aspire, and to confirm them in the understanding of it. … Again, because we need not only teaching but also exhortation, the servant of God will also avail himself of this benefit of the law: by frequent meditation upon it to be aroused to obedience, be strengthened in it, and be drawn back from the slippery path of transgression.”

On the Destiny of the Earth

Here are several quotes spanning the centuries concerning the destiny of the earth at the end of the age. Bede is a bit of an outlier thinking that water and fire will be consumed entirely, but all of them assert that the earth will be renovated and changed, not annihilated and/or replaced. The Bible does not teach the annihilation, abandonment, and discarding of the earth, but rather the restoration, purification, and glorification of the earth. As the mortal body of believers will be raised incorruptible, so this earth shall be freed from corruption and made new, the inheritance of those who have been saved through faith in Christ.  

Bede, Commentary on 2 Peter (c. 710):
“That very great fire ... will consume two [elements, i.e. water and fire] entirely, but two [air and earth] in fact it will restore to a better appearance… For he did not say other heavens and another earth, but the old and ancient one to be changed for the better, according to what David said, 'In the beginning, Lord, you founded the earth, and the heavens are the works of your hands; they will perish, but you will remain, and they will all grow old as a garment, and you will change them as a piece of clothing, and they shall be changed' [Ps. 102:25-26]. As for the things, therefore that will perish, grow old and be changed, it is definitely clear that once they have been consumed by the fire they resume a more pleasing appearance as soon as the fire goes out. For ‘the shape of this world passes away’ [1 Cor. 7:31] not its substance, just as with our bodies too, the shape will be changed, the substance does not perish when what ‘is sowed as a physical body rises as a spiritual body’ [1 Cor. 15:44].”

John Calvin, Commentary on 2 Peter (1551):
“For he thus reasons, that as heaven and earth are to be purged by fire, that they may correspond with the kingdom of Christ, hence the renovation of men is much more necessary.”
“Of the elements of the world I shall only say this one thing, that they are to be consumed, only that they may be renovated, their substance still remaining the same, as may be easily gathered from Rom. 8:21, and from other passages.”

A.A. Hodge, Outlines of Theology (1860):
“The phrases ‘new heaven,’ and ‘new earth,’ in contrast with ‘first heavens’ and ‘first earth,’ (2 Peter 3:7, 13, Rev. 21:1) refer to some unexplained change which will take place in the final catastrophe, by which God will revolutionize our portion of the physical universe, cleansing it from the stain of sin, and qualifying it to be the abode of blessedness.”

R.L. Dabney, Systematic Theology (1871):
“This planet was fashioned to be man’s heritage; and a part of it, at least, adorned with the beauties of a paradise, for his home. Satan sought to mar the divine plan, by the seduction of our first parents. For long ages he has seemed to triumph, and has filled His usurped dominion with crime and misery. But his insolent invasion is not to be destined to obstruct the Almighty’s beneficent design. The intrusion will be in vain. God’s purpose shall be executed. Messiah will come and reestablish His throne in the midst of His scarred and ravaged realm; He will cleanse away every stain of sin and death, and make this earth bloom forever with more than its pristine splendour; so that the very plan which was initiated when ‘the morning stars sang to gather and the sons of God shouted for joy,’ will stand to everlasting ages.”

Chrysostom on Wine

I recently came across the following passage from John Chrysostom (A.D. 347-407) in his 57th homily on the Gospel of Matthew on the topic of wine, drunkenness, and the use of God's creation. 

"For instance, I hear many say, when these excesses happen, 'Would there were no wine.' O folly! O madness! When other men sin, dost thou find fault with God’s gifts? And what great madness is this? What? did the wine, O man, produce this evil? Not the wine, but the intemperance of such as take an evil delight in it. Say then, 'Would there were no drunkenness, no luxury;' but if thou say, 'Would there were no wine,' thou wilt say, going on by degrees, 'Would there were no steel, because of the murderers; no night, because of the thieves; no light, because of the informers; no women, because of adulteries;' and, in a word, thou wilt destroy all.

"But do not so; for this is of a satanical mind [1 Tim. 4:1-5]; do not find fault with the wine, but with the drunkenness; and when thou hast found this self-same man sober, sketch out all his unseemliness, and say unto him, Wine was given, that we might be cheerful, not that we might behave ourselves unseemly; that we might laugh, not that we might be a laughingstock; that we might be healthful, not that we might be diseased; that we might correct the weakness of our body, not cast down the might of our soul.

"God honored thee with the gift, why disgrace thyself with the excess thereof? Hear what Paul saith, 'Use a little wine for thy stomach’s sake, and thine often infirmities' [1 Tim. 5:23]. But if that saint, even when oppressed with disease, and enduring successive sicknesses, partook not of wine, until his Teacher suffered him; what excuse shall we have, who are drunken in health? To him indeed He said, 'Use a little wine for thy stomach’s sake;' but to each of you who are drunken, He will say, 'Use little wine, for thy fornications, thy frequent filthy talking, for the other wicked desires to which drunkenness is wont to give birth.' But if ye are not willing, for these reasons, to abstain; at least on account of the despondencies which come of it, and the vexations, do ye abstain. For wine was given for gladness, 'Yea, wine,' so it is said, 'maketh glad the heart of man' [Ps. 104:15]; but ye mar even this excellence in it. For what kind of gladness is it to be beside one’s self, and to have innumerable vexations, and to see all things whirling round, and to be oppressed with giddiness, and like those that have a fever, to require some who may drench their heads with oil?"

Chrysostom's arguments here are very similar to the arguments made later by John Calvin in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (see here). Calvin wrote, "Let this be our principle, that we err not in the use of the gifts of Providence when we refer them to the end for which their author made and destined them, since he created them for our good, and not for our destruction." (3.10.2).

Augustine on Promoting Peace on Earth

In his book, The City of God (AD 426), Augustine makes the following comments about how the city of God, driven by love for God and others, promotes "well-ordered concord" in society. In particular, he notes that this is especially worked out in the life of the household. 

"But as this divine Master inculcates two precepts — the love of God and the love of our neighbor — and as in these precepts a man finds three things he has to love —God, himself, and his neighbor — and that he who loves God loves himself thereby, it follows that he must endeavor to get his neighbor to love God, since he is ordered to love his neighbor as himself. He ought to make this endeavor in behalf of his wife, his children, his household, all within his reach, even as he would wish his neighbor to do the same for him if he needed it; and consequently he will be at peace, or in well-ordered concord, with all men, as far as in him lies. And this is the order of this concord, that a man, in the first place, injure no one, and, in the second, do good to every one he can reach. 

"Primarily, therefore, his own household are his care, for the law of nature and of society gives him readier access to them and greater opportunity of serving them. And hence the apostle says, "Now, if any provide not for his own, and specially for those of his own house, he has denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel" (1 Timothy 5:8). This is the origin of domestic peace, or the well-ordered concord of those in the family who rule and those who obey. For they who care for the rest rule — the husband the wife, the parents the children, the masters the servants; and they who are cared for obey — the women their husbands, the children their parents, the servants their masters. But in the family of the just man who lives by faith and is as yet a pilgrim journeying on to the celestial city, even those who rule serve those whom they seem to command; for they rule not from a love of power, but from a sense of the duty they owe to others — not because they are proud of authority, but because they love mercy." (Augustine, The City of God, 19.14, available online here.)

 

Hugh Latimer on the "Goodly Art" of Shooting Practice

One of the important English Reformers during the time of Henry VIII and Edward VI was Hugh Latimer. He would be burned at the stake for heresy during the reign of Queen Mary in 1555 as one of the "Oxford Martyrs." He was a remarkable preacher, and a number of his sermons can be read online at this link. I wanted to share one interesting point I came across while I was skimming through his sermons this Reformation Day. This sermon was the sixth that he preached before King Edward VI. After rebuking the sexual immorality and wasteful gaming of his day, he turned to exhort the people to a "wholesome kind of exercise," that of shooting practice. 

"For the love of God let remedy be had, let us wrestle and strive against sin. Men of England, in times past, when they would exercise themselves, (for we must needs have some recreation, our bodies cannot endure without some exercise,) they were wont to go abroad in the fields a shooting; but now it is turned into glossing, gulling, and whoring within the house. The art of shooting hath been in times past much esteemed in this realm: it is a gift of God that he hath given us to excel all other nations withal: it hath been God's instrument, whereby he hath given us many victories against our enemies: but now we have taken up whoring in towns, instead of shooting in the fields. A wondrous thing, that so excellent a gift of God should be so little esteemed! I desire you, my lords, even as ye love the honour and glory of God, and intend to remove his indignation, let there be sent forth some proclamation, some sharp proclamation to the justices of peace, for they do not their duty: justices now be no justices. There be many good acts made for this matter already. Charge them upon their allegiance, that this singular benefit of God may be practised, and that it be not turned into bowling, glossing, and whoring within the towns; for they be negligent in executing these laws of shooting. In my time my poor father was as diligent to, teach me to shoot, as to learn me any other thing; and so I think other men did their children, he taught me how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow, and not to draw with strength of arms, as other nations do, but with strength of the body: I had my bows bought me, according to my age and strength; as I increased in them, so my bows were made bigger and bigger, for men shall never shoot well, except they be brought up in it: it is a goodly art, a wholesome kind of exercise, and much commended in physic.

"Marcilius Phicinus, in his book De triplici vita, (it is a great while since I read him now,) but I remember he commendeth this kind of exercise, and saith, that it wrestleth against many kinds of diseases. In the reverence of God let it be continued; let a proclamation go forth; charging the justices of peace, that they see such acts and statutes kept as were made for this purpose." 

The Reformers, and after them the Puritans, were not against recreation and play, but only against recreation which was immoral, immoderate, or unwise. In fact, they wrote in the Westminster Larger Catechism that one of the duties of the sixth commandment is "a sober use of meat, drink, physic, sleep, labor, and recreations" (WLC, Q. 135). While they warned of the dangers of sin, they also affirmed the goodness of creation and taught that the alternative to sin was not to be found in monastic asceticism but in a grateful enjoyment of lawful and refreshing pleasures given us by God (1 Tim. 4:1-8). A good historical study of how this teaching was worked out in practice can be found in Puritans at Play: Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England by Bruce C. Daniels. These principles are very useful in our day, with its unprecedented opportunity for entertainment. We face the dangers of immoral entertainment, wasteful and unwise entertainment, and excessive consumption and addiction. One part of the Christian response is a wise and grateful use of lawful recreations which are refreshing and wholesome. 

While Latimer referred to archery, the Puritans continued to affirm shooting practice as a wholesome recreation once guns became more prevalent. In fact, it is one of the recreations we know was practiced at the first Thanksgiving. As Edward Winslow recorded in Mourt's Relation, "at which time amongst other Recreations, we exercised our Arms..." While we no longer have laws requiring shooting practice, it remains a useful and wholesome exercise to be commended today. 

William Tyndale on the Need for Reformation

On this day (October 6) in 1536, William Tyndale, Bible translator and Protestant reformer, was burned at the stake for heresy. His desire and goal can be seen in the following salutation and prayer from the preface to his book, "An Answer unto Sir Thomas More's Dialogue" (1531). 

“The grace of our Lord, the light of his Spirit to see and judge, true repentance towards God’s law, a fast faith in the merciful promises that are in our Saviour Christ, fervent love toward thy neighbour after the ensample of Christ and his saints, be with thee, O reader, and with all that love the truth, and long for the redemption of God’s elect. Amen.” 

And the beginning of the book, he described the need for reform in the church in this way, 

"This word church hath divers significations. First it signifieth a place or house; whither christian people were wont in the old time to resort at times convenient, for to hear the word of doctrine, the law of God, and the faith of our Saviour Jesus Christ, and how and what to pray, and whence to ask power and strength to live godly. For the officer, thereto appointed, preached the pure word of God church only, and prayed in a tongue that all men understood: and the people hearkened unto his prayers, and said thereto Amen; and prayed with him in their hearts, and of him learned to pray at home and everywhere, and to instruct every man his household.

"Where now we hear but voices without significations, and buzzings, howlings, and cryings, as it were the hallooing of foxes, or baitings of bears; and wonder at disguisings and toys, whereof we know no meaning. By reason whereof we be fallen into such ignorance, that we know of the mercy and promises, which are in Christ, nothing at all. And of the law of God we think as do the Turks, and as did the old heathen people; how that it is a thing which every man may do of his own power, and in doing thereof becometh good, and waxeth righteous, and deserveth heaven; yea, and are yet more mad than that: for we imagine the same of fantasies, and vain ceremonies of our own making; neither needful unto the taming of our own flesh, neither profitable unto our neighbour, neither honour unto God. And of prayer we think, that no man can pray but at church; and that it a nothing else but to say Pater noster unto a post: wherewith yet, and with other observances of our own imagining, we believe we deserve to be sped of all that our blind hearts desire."

 

John Calvin on Birthdays

 

This Sunday I plan to preach on Matthew 13:53-14:12, which tells of Jesus rejection at his hometown and John the Baptist's execution at the hands of Herod. In his commentary on this passage, John Calvin (1509-1564) addresses the practice of celebrating one's birthday, since Herod was persuaded to execute John at Herod's birthday party. Obviously, this particular birthday party was the occasion of a great sin, so Calvin points out the temptations that accompany celebrations, but he also points out that birthday celebrations themselves are lawful and can be a beneficial observance if rightly used.

"The ancient custom of observing a birthday every year as an occasion of joy cannot in itself be disapproved; for that day, as often as it returns, reminds each of us to give thanks to God, who brought us into this world, and has permitted us, in his kindness, to spend many years in it; next, to bring to our recollection how improperly and uselessly the time which God granted to us has been permitted to pass away; and, lastly, that we ought to commit ourselves to the protection of the same God for the remainder of our life.

"But nothing is so pure that the world shall not taint it with its own vices. A birthday, which ought to have been held sacred, is profaned by the greater part of men with disgraceful abuses; and there is scarcely a single entertainment at all costly that is free from wicked debauchery. First, men drink more freely; next, the door is opened to filthy and immodest conversation; and, lastly, no moderation is observed. This was the reason why the patriarch Job was in the habit of offering sacrifices, while his sons were feasting alternately in each other’s houses (Job 1:5). It was because he thought that, when the guests invite one another to mirth, they are far from maintaining due moderation, and sin in a variety of ways." (source)

His reference to Job points us to what is probably another biblical reference to birthday celebrations (the phrase in Job 1:4, "his day," is also used in Job 3:1 where it clearly refers to the day of one's birth). As Calvin describes birthdays, so Job 1:4-5 portrays birthdays both as a good thing, a sign of God's blessing upon Job's family, as well as a possible occasion of sin. 

"His sons used to go and hold a feast in the house of each one on his day, and they would send and invite their three sisters to eat and drink with them. And when the days of the feast had run their course, Job would send and consecrate them, and he would rise early in the morning and offer burnt offerings according to the number of them all. For Job said, 'It may be that my children have sinned, and cursed God in their hearts.' Thus Job did continually." (Job 1:4–5)

Indeed, as Calvin says, "nothing is so pure that the world shall not taint it with its own vices." Let us not make the day an occasion of selfishness or a time when we lower our guard against sin, but rather may each of us make a good use of this observance when it comes. May we gratefully mark the life God has given us and "number our days that we may get a heart of wisdom" (Ps. 90:12), rejoicing in the mercy he has shown. 

Chrysostom on Bringing Heaven to Earth

As I have been preaching through the gospel of Matthew, I have been reading several commentaries such as those by John Calvin (1509-1564), David Dickson (1583-1663), and R.T. France (1938-2012). For a perspective from the early church, I have also been reading the sermons of John Chrysostom (347-407). Chrysostom gained his name (which means "golden-mouthed") from his reputation as a good preacher who was eloquent, engaging, and bold. His preaching was also respected by the Reformers for his exegetical and practical approach as he worked verse by verse though books of the Bible. You can read many of his sermons here (his sermons on the Gospel of Matthew are here). Here I want to share the ending of his sermon on Matthew 12:38-45 where he exhorts his congregation on the perennial issue of Christ and culture, of being "in the world but not of the world," of being godly in the midst of our earthly callings.

"Let us show forth then a new kind of life. Let us make earth, heaven; let us hereby show the Greeks, of how great blessings they are deprived. For when they behold in us good conversation [behavior], they will look upon the very face of the kingdom of Heaven...

"Let us take heed therefore to ourselves, that we may gain them also. I say nothing burdensome. I say not, do not marry. I say not, forsake cities, and withdraw thyself from public affairs; but being engaged in them, show virtue. Yea, and such as are busy in the midst of cities, I would fain have more approved than such as have occupied the mountains [as monks]. Wherefore? Because great is the profit thence arising. 'For no man lighteth a candle, and setteth it under the bushel' (Matt. 5:15). Therefore I would that all the candles were set upon the candlestick, that the light might wax great.

"Let us kindle then His fire; let us cause them that are sitting in darkness to be delivered from their error. And tell me not, 'I have a wife, and children belonging to me, and am master of a household, and cannot duly practise all this.' For though thou hadst none of these, yet if thou be careless, all is lost; though thou art encompassed with all these, yet if thou be earnest, thou shalt attain unto virtue ... For so Daniel was young, and Joseph a slave, and Aquila wrought at a craft, and the woman who sold purple was over a workshop, and another was the keeper of a prison, and another a centurion, as Cornelius; and another in ill health, as Timothy; and another a runaway, as Onesimus; but nothing proved an hindrance to any of these, but all were approved, both men and women, both young and old, both slaves and free, both soldiers and people.

"Let us not then make vain pretexts, but let us provide a thoroughly good mind, and whatsoever we may be, we shall surely attain to virtue, and arrive at the good things to come; by the grace and love towards man of our Lord Jesus Christ, with whom be unto the Father, together with the Holy Ghost, glory, might, honor, now and ever, and world without end. Amen." 

Hope for the Future Increase of the Church

Last Sunday I preached on Isaiah 66:7-14, a prophecy of God's restoration of his church which portrays the church as a mother who would miraculously give birth to abundant children who would be nursed and cared for by her. Here I wanted to share John Calvin's comment on verse eight of this passage. Even though the church may seem nearly barren for a time, God shall in time make his church fruitful through the gospel, even as Calvin observed during the time of the Reformation.

"Who has heard such a thing?
Who has seen such things?
Shall a land be born in one day?
Shall a nation be brought forth in one moment?
For as soon as Zion was in labor
she brought forth her children."
(Isaiah 66:8)

John Calvin:

"He extols the greatness of the thing of which he has spoken; for he means that there shall be a wonderful and 'unheard of' restoration of the Church; so that believers shall not judge of it from the order of nature, but from the grace of God; for when men reflect upon it: they think that it is like a dream, as the Psalmist says (Psalm 126:1). He does not mean that the Church shall be restored perfectly and in a moment; for the advancement of this restoration is great and long-continued, and is even slow in the estimation of the flesh; but he shews that even the beginning of it exceeds all the capacity of the human understanding. And yet he does not speak hyperbolically; for we often see that the Church brings forth, which previously did not appear to be pregnant. Nay more, when she is thought to be barren, she is rendered fruitful by the preaching of the gospel; so that we greatly admire the event, when it has happened, which formerly we reckoned to be altogether incredible. 

"These things were fulfilled in some measure, when the people returned from Babylon; but a far brighter testimony was given in the gospel, by the publication of which a diversified and numerous offspring was immediately brought forth. In our own times, have we not seen the fulfillment of this prophecy? How many children has the Church brought forth during the last thirty years, in which the gospel has been preached? Has not the Lord his people, at the present day, in vast numbers, throughout the whole world? Nothing, therefore, has been here foretold that is not clearly seen." (https://ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom16/calcom16.xix.i.html)

Salvation and Mother Church

This past Sunday, I preached a sermon entitled "Mother Church" on Isaiah 66:7-14. In that passage, God describes the church as a fruitful, beloved, and blessed mother. You can listen to the sermon here or watch it here. As I point out in the sermon, the church is also described as a mother in other passages, like Isaiah 54 and Galatians 4:21-31. This biblical image for the church has been used throughout church history by men like Cyprian (200-258), and John Calvin (1509-1564) echoed his comments when he wrote of the church:

“What God has thus joined, let not man put asunder: to those to whom he is a Father, the Church must also be a mother … [A]s it is now our purpose to discourse of the visible Church, let us learn, from her single title of Mother, how useful, nay, how necessary the knowledge of her is, since there is no other means of entering into life unless she conceive us in the womb and give us birth, unless she nourish us at her breasts, and, in short, keep us under her charge and government, until, divested of mortal flesh, we become like the angels. For our weakness does not permit us to leave the school until we have spent our whole lives as scholars. Moreover, beyond the pale of the Church no forgiveness of sins, no salvation, can be hoped for ...” - John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (4.1.1, 4)

Beautiful words, but also strong words, especially that last sentence. He goes on to explain it by discussing Isaiah 37:32, Joel 2:32, Ezekiel 13:9, and Psalm 106:4-5. And Calvin was not alone in speaking so strongly of the visible church. Consider these statements from the confession of the continental Reformed churches and the confession of the British Reformed churches: 

"We believe, since this holy congregation is an assembly of those who are saved, and that out of it there is no salvation, that no person of whatsoever state or condition he may be, ought to withdraw himself, to live in a separate state from it; but that all men are in duty bound to join and unite themselves with it..."
- Belgic Confession of Faith, 28 (1561) 

"The visible church ... is the kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ, the house and family of God, out of which there is no ordinary possibility of salvation."
-Westminster Confession of Faith, 25.2 (1646)

Why would a Protestant say that there is no ordinary possibility of salvation outside the visible church? Watch the video below to find out! I give four biblical reasons why there is no ordinary possibility of salvation outside the visible church. 

The Comforting Doctrine of Providence

As John Calvin mentions in the quote above, God's providence is an immense comfort for the Christian. You can read Calvin's discussion of the practical use of the doctrine of providence (the source for this quote) here. But if you want a shorter explanation of the concept, the Heidelberg Catechism (1563) explains God’s providence and its practical implications in this way:

Q. 27. What dost thou mean by the providence of God?
A. The almighty and everywhere present power of God; whereby, as it were by his hand, he upholds and governs heaven, earth, and all creatures; so that herbs and grass, rain and drought, fruitful and barren years, meat and drink, health and sickness, riches and poverty, yea, and all things come, not by chance, but by his fatherly hand. 

Q. 28. What advantage is it to us to know that God has created, and by his providence does still uphold all things?
A. That we may be patient in adversity; thankful in prosperity; and that in all things, which may hereafter befall us, we place our firm trust in our faithful God and Father, that nothing shall separate us from his love; since all creatures are so in his hand, that without his will they cannot so much as move.

Augustine on Burying the Dead

In the book, The City of God, Augustine gave a lengthly defense of the faith in the aftermath of the sack of Rome in 410 by the Visigoths. At one point, in discussing the sack of Rome and the fact that some Christians were killed and left unburied, Augustine made the following comments on the burial of the dead.

"But even their own philosophers have despised a careful burial; and often whole armies have fought and fallen for their earthly country without caring to inquire whether they would be left exposed on the field of battle, or become the food of wild beasts. Of this noble disregard of sepulture poetry has well said: 'He who has no tomb has the sky for his vault.' How much less ought they to insult over the unburied bodies of Christians, to whom it has been promised that the flesh itself shall be restored, and the body formed anew, all the members of it being gathered not only from the earth, but from the most secret recesses of any other of the elements in which the dead bodies of men have lain hid! 

"Nevertheless the bodies of the dead are not on this account to be despised and left unburied; least of all the bodies of the righteous and faithful, which have been used by the Holy Spirit as His organs and instruments for all good works. For if the dress of a father, or his ring, or anything he wore, be precious to his children, in proportion to the love they bore him, with how much more reason ought we to care for the bodies of those we love, which they wore far more closely and intimately than any clothing! For the body is not an extraneous ornament or aid, but a part of man's very nature. 

"And therefore to the righteous of ancient times the last offices were piously rendered, and sepulchres provided for them, and obsequies celebrated; and they themselves, while yet alive, gave commandment to their sons about the burial, and, on occasion, even about the removal of their bodies to some favorite place. And Tobit, according to the angel's testimony, is commended, and is said to have pleased God by burying the dead (Tobit 12:12). Our Lord Himself, too, though He was to rise again the third day, applauds, and commends to our applause, the good work of the religious woman who poured precious ointment over His limbs, and did it against His burial (Matthew 26:10-13). And the Gospel speaks with commendation of those who were careful to take down His body from the cross, and wrap it lovingly in costly burial cloths, and see to its burial (John 19:38). These instances certainly do not prove that corpses have any feeling; but they show that God's providence extends even to the bodies of the dead, and that such pious offices are pleasing to Him, as cherishing faith in the resurrection. And we may also draw from them this wholesome lesson, that if God does not forget even any kind office which loving care pays to the unconscious dead, much more does He reward the charity we exercise towards the living. Other things, indeed, which the holy patriarchs said of the burial and removal of their bodies, they meant to be taken in a prophetic sense; but of these we need not here speak at large, what we have already said being sufficient. 

"But if the want of those things which are necessary for the support of the living, as food and clothing, though painful and trying, does not break down the fortitude and virtuous endurance of good men, nor eradicate piety from their souls, but rather renders it more fruitful, how much less can the absence of the funeral, and of the other customary attentions paid to the dead, render those wretched who are already reposing in the hidden abodes of the blessed! Consequently, though in the sack of Rome and of other towns the dead bodies of the Christians were deprived of these last offices, this is neither the fault of the living, for they could not render them; nor an infliction to the dead, for they cannot feel the loss." (Augustine, The City of God, 1.12-13)

Augustine on the Desire for Empire

As he commented on the rise and fall of the Roman Empire and critiqued the values of pagan Rome, Augustine made the following observation on the desire for imperial expansion.

"Let them ask, then, whether it is quite fitting for good men to rejoice in extended empire. For the iniquity of those with whom just wars are carried on favors the growth of a kingdom, which would certainly have been small if the peace and justice of neighbors had not by any wrong provoked the carrying on of war against them; and human affairs being thus more happy, all kingdoms would have been small, rejoicing in neighborly concord; and thus there would have been very many kingdoms of nations in the world, as there are very many houses of citizens in a city. Therefore, to carry on war and extend a kingdom over wholly subdued nations seems to bad men to be felicity, to good men necessity. But because it would be worse that the injurious should rule over those who are more righteous, therefore even that is not unsuitably called felicity. But beyond doubt it is greater felicity to have a good neighbor at peace, than to conquer a bad one by making war. Your wishes are bad, when you desire that one whom you hate or fear should be in such a condition that you can conquer him." (Augustine, The City of God, 4.15)

In other words, Augustine argues that when done justly (in response to the iniquity and aggression of your neighbors), imperial expansion might be necessary and better than the alternatives. But the desire of the good man is not imperial expansion, even when done justly. The good man desires peaceful harmony and contentment among the nations.