Thus far in this series on denominations, we have looked at the eight major denominational traditions that are Protestant. Today we turn to an overview of Roman Catholicism. During the Reformation in the 16th century, the western church split into Protestant and Romanist churches. Just as there were proto-Reformers in the medieval era, so also the beliefs and practices that would define the Roman Catholic Church had been developing for some time. Yet Roman Catholicism would take its dogmatic and well-defined form as a denomination in Rome’s negative response to the Reformation. The Roman "Catholic" Church claims to be the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church, not merely a branch of it, but this is one of its false claims.
History
Pre-Reformation
In general, many errors and bad practices developed in the medieval era, and yet things were contested and debated, and various reform movements were active in that era.
Transubstantiation and the Sacrifice of the Mass
Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Pope Leo X rejected Martin Luther’s appeals for reform and held firmly to the sale of indulgences. He excommunicated Luther and died about a year later.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) met to respond to the Reformation. Despite some dissenting voices, it generally rejected the Protestant position and stated it own contrary position. It also made some reforms, such as forbidding the sale of indulgences (although not the granting of them).
The Council of Trent was part of, and a foundation for, the Counter-Reformation. The Counter-Reformation was led by men like Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556, founder of the Jesuits), Charles Borromeo (1538-1584, Archbishop of Milan), and Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621, a Jesuit theology professor and Archbishop of Capua). The Counter-Reformation in the 1600s mostly halted the advance of Protestantism in Europe and led to the retaking of some territory (e.g. Poland) and foreign missions (e.g. Japan). The first English Bible to be printed with Papal approval was published in 1582 (NT) and 1610 (OT).
Scipione Rebiba (1504–1577) is an important figure, since about 95% of Roman Catholic bishops today (and all popes since 1700) trace their ordinations back to him and it is unknown who ordained him. Thus, most of them cannot trace their ordinations back to the apostles, something they believe to be essential for a valid ministry.
America
While the first two churches in what is now the United States of America were Roman Catholic (in Florida and New Mexico), Roman Catholicism was a fringe minority in the British colonies that became the United States. The most prominent Roman Catholics were in Maryland, and the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States (1790) was John Carroll in Baltimore. His cousin signed the Declaration and his brother signed the Constitution. Many Roman Catholic immigrants arrived in the 1800s (e.g. Irish, Germans, Italians) and the United States grew to include historically Roman Catholic territories, such as Florida, Louisiana, and the Southwest. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church became the largest denomination in America by 1850 (i.e. after the Mexican-American War), although it remained outside the “mainline.” In the mid-1900s, Fulton Sheen was a prominent bishop in America, hosting a television program.
Later Councils
Vatican I (1870) - This council dogmatically affirmed the universal jurisdiction and infallibility of the pope when he speaks ex cathedra. Those who disagreed formed the Old Catholic Church, separate from Rome.
Vatican II (1962-1965) - The full impact of this council is hard to summarize. It led to the use of vernacular languages in the Mass instead of Latin, communion under both kinds (bread and wine), reduction of the prohibition of meat to just the Fridays of Lent, other liturgical changes, and a softer approach to other churches and religions. Bishop Wojtyła took part in this council and became Pope John Paul II in 1978.
Overview
The Church of Rome teaches that special revelation from God is given to us through Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, as interpreted by the Magisterium (the Pope and the bishops in communion with him).
As is the case with historic Protestants, they use the Creeds, the Ten Commandments, and the Lord’s Prayer as basic catechetical summaries of the Christian religion. Another structure that is used by them (and some Protestants) to teach the Christian life is the seven virtues, composed of the four cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance and the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity. They also teach that there are seven (not just two) sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, the Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.
Errors
Authority, Succession, Canon, and Implicit Faith
The Status of the Roman Church from a Protestant Perspective
A good analogy that was used by the Reformers was that of the northern kingdom of Israel. The northern kingdom professed the true God, its members were marked by the sign of the covenant, and there was a remnant of faithful believers in it; yet that kingdom had departed from ordinances God had appointed in Jerusalem, they had substituted for them the idolatrous and corrupt worship of the true God using golden calves, and they were led by kings that made the people to sin in unfaithfulness to their covenant God. Calls were given to the northern kingdom and its members to turn to their Lord and to worship him in Jerusalem.
Calvin compared the Roman Church to ancient Israel when it had fallen into apostasy but nevertheless retained God’s covenant and circumcision, so that the children born of that people were his (Ezek. 16:20-21). He denied that we must maintain fellowship with them and accept their teaching, but also conceded that, “the Lord has left in them some trace and semblance of his church. There is, first, God’s covenant, which cannot be broken, and baptism, which is its sacrament and which, being hallowed by the Lord’s mouth, retains its force despite the impiety of man. To sum up, we do not at all deny that in them exists a church, nor do we simply affirm it without qualification. These are churches to the extent that our Lord preserves in them the remnants of his people who are miserably scattered among them; to the extent, too, that they retain some marks of the church, especially those whose effectiveness cannot be destroyed either by the devil’s wiles or by human wickedness. On the other hand, because the marks essential to the church we now describe are there erased, if we seek a properly ordered church, no lawful form of it will be found there.”
The beliefs of its members are supposed to be whatever the church teaches, but this is often not the case. Their beliefs can be worse than the official dogma, but their beliefs can also be better, especially when they have been influenced by Protestants. If you are interacting with individuals in the Roman Church, it is important to not jump to conclusions. See what they themselves actually believe (and what they think you believe). Encourage them to be true to their baptism by resting upon Christ alone for their salvation if they don’t already, and by forsaking the false teaching and corrupt worship of the Roman church. Let them know that to leave the Roman church is not to leave the one holy catholic and apostolic church that Christ founded. The Reformers did not found a new church during the Protestant Reformation. They worked to reform the church of Jesus Christ, which already existed.
Transubstantiation and the Sacrifice of the Mass
The word “transubstantiation” was first affirmed in 1215 by the Fourth Lateran Council. The word was used more and more over time, even while the doctrine that the substance of the bread and wine becomes the body and blood of Christ was opposed by the Waldensians, Lollards, and Hussites. The idea that the Lord’s Supper was a propitiatory sacrifice for sins developed gradually in connection with other beliefs like transubstantiation and purgatory.
Purgatory and Indulgences
Purgatory and Indulgences
The idea of purgatory developed gradually, more in the west than the east, as a consequence of beliefs concerning penance and the satisfaction of the temporal penalties for sin. What began as church discipline turned into a system of making satisfaction, even after death. This in turn led to the use of indulgences, and eventually even the sale of indulgences, that remitted some of these temporal penalties.
Papal Authority
Papal Authority
Due to the historic prominence of the city of Rome, the bishop of Rome held an influential position in the church. In 1303, Boniface VIII issued Unam Sanctam, in which he asserted his authority over the state and said “Now, therefore, we declare, say, determine and pronounce that for every human creature it is necessary for salvation to be subject to the authority of the Roman pontiff.” But it took time for this claim to be established and recognized. Boniface VIII was soon arrested by French troops and died shortly after. The “Babylonian captivity of the papacy” in France lasted from 1305 to 1376. This was succeeded by the “Western Schism” from 1378 to 1417, in which there was more than one person who claimed to be the bishop of Rome (i.e. the Pope).
Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Pope Leo X rejected Martin Luther’s appeals for reform and held firmly to the sale of indulgences. He excommunicated Luther and died about a year later.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) met to respond to the Reformation. Despite some dissenting voices, it generally rejected the Protestant position and stated it own contrary position. It also made some reforms, such as forbidding the sale of indulgences (although not the granting of them).
The Council of Trent was part of, and a foundation for, the Counter-Reformation. The Counter-Reformation was led by men like Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556, founder of the Jesuits), Charles Borromeo (1538-1584, Archbishop of Milan), and Robert Bellarmine (1542-1621, a Jesuit theology professor and Archbishop of Capua). The Counter-Reformation in the 1600s mostly halted the advance of Protestantism in Europe and led to the retaking of some territory (e.g. Poland) and foreign missions (e.g. Japan). The first English Bible to be printed with Papal approval was published in 1582 (NT) and 1610 (OT).
Scipione Rebiba (1504–1577) is an important figure, since about 95% of Roman Catholic bishops today (and all popes since 1700) trace their ordinations back to him and it is unknown who ordained him. Thus, most of them cannot trace their ordinations back to the apostles, something they believe to be essential for a valid ministry.
America
While the first two churches in what is now the United States of America were Roman Catholic (in Florida and New Mexico), Roman Catholicism was a fringe minority in the British colonies that became the United States. The most prominent Roman Catholics were in Maryland, and the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States (1790) was John Carroll in Baltimore. His cousin signed the Declaration and his brother signed the Constitution. Many Roman Catholic immigrants arrived in the 1800s (e.g. Irish, Germans, Italians) and the United States grew to include historically Roman Catholic territories, such as Florida, Louisiana, and the Southwest. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church became the largest denomination in America by 1850 (i.e. after the Mexican-American War), although it remained outside the “mainline.” In the mid-1900s, Fulton Sheen was a prominent bishop in America, hosting a television program.
Later Councils
Vatican I (1870) - This council dogmatically affirmed the universal jurisdiction and infallibility of the pope when he speaks ex cathedra. Those who disagreed formed the Old Catholic Church, separate from Rome.
Vatican II (1962-1965) - The full impact of this council is hard to summarize. It led to the use of vernacular languages in the Mass instead of Latin, communion under both kinds (bread and wine), reduction of the prohibition of meat to just the Fridays of Lent, other liturgical changes, and a softer approach to other churches and religions. Bishop Wojtyła took part in this council and became Pope John Paul II in 1978.
Overview
The Church of Rome teaches that special revelation from God is given to us through Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition, as interpreted by the Magisterium (the Pope and the bishops in communion with him).
As is the case with historic Protestants, they use the Creeds, the Ten Commandments, and the Lord’s Prayer as basic catechetical summaries of the Christian religion. Another structure that is used by them (and some Protestants) to teach the Christian life is the seven virtues, composed of the four cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance and the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity. They also teach that there are seven (not just two) sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, the Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.
Errors
Authority, Succession, Canon, and Implicit Faith
They add tradition to Scripture, denying the sufficiency of Scripture (2 Tim. 3:16-17). They insist on a certain episcopal “apostolic succession” of ordinations for a valid ministry without biblical warrant. They recognize the Apocrypha as Scripture (adding books to the Old Testament not given as Scripture or recognized as Scripture by the Jews, who were entrusted with the oracles of God, Rom. 3:2). And they demand and teach an implicit faith in what the church officially teaches, denying liberty of conscience. They wrongly exalt the pope as the earthly head of the whole church, with spiritual and temporal jurisdiction, while in fact Christ is the only head of his church (Col. 1:18, Eph. 2:20).
Justification
Justification
They accept the satisfaction of Christ for their satisfaction, but not for their righteousness before God. They teach that justification is by the forgiveness of sins and by the renewal of the inner man, on the basis of which a person is declared to be righteous. I have written more about these errors and those of the next paragraph here.
Penance, Temporal Penalties for Sin, and the Sacrifice of the Mass
Penance, Temporal Penalties for Sin, and the Sacrifice of the Mass
They teach that justification can be lost by mortal sins but restored through penance; that temporal penalties remain even when the guilt and punishment of sin is remitted; that if a believer dies before suffering all the temporal punishments for their sins, they must be further purified by suffering in purgatory; and that the sacrifice of the Eucharist is a reparation for the sins of the living and the dead that obtains spiritual or temporal benefits from God.
Worship and the Saints
Worship and the Saints
They add many ceremonies without warrant of Scripture. They pray to dead saints and pray for the souls of the dead in purgatory. Their prayers to dead saints often ascribe far too much to them, and their use of their relics is superstitious. They direct their worship of God and veneration of the saints to (“through”) images. They also have some errors in their moral teaching, such as their current opposition to the death penalty and their prohibition of divorce in all cases.
What Good Remains
The Roman Church retains many truths, even if it also misleads or obscures the truth by other teachings. For example, they affirm the doctrines of God, the Trinity, Scripture (that it is the word of God), the Incarnation, Christ’s life, miracles, death, resurrection, ascension, and coming to judge the world; and that Christ’s obedient sacrifice of himself was offered in reparation for our disobedience, atoned for our faults, made satisfaction for our sins to the Father, and merited justification for us (CCC 613-617). They believe in the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life of the age to come. They retain baptism (a washing with water, in the name of the Trinity, with the design to signify, seal, and apply the benefits of the new covenant). They have successfully resisted cultural pressures to give official approval to abortion, homosexual marriage, and the ordination of women.
What Good Remains
The Roman Church retains many truths, even if it also misleads or obscures the truth by other teachings. For example, they affirm the doctrines of God, the Trinity, Scripture (that it is the word of God), the Incarnation, Christ’s life, miracles, death, resurrection, ascension, and coming to judge the world; and that Christ’s obedient sacrifice of himself was offered in reparation for our disobedience, atoned for our faults, made satisfaction for our sins to the Father, and merited justification for us (CCC 613-617). They believe in the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life of the age to come. They retain baptism (a washing with water, in the name of the Trinity, with the design to signify, seal, and apply the benefits of the new covenant). They have successfully resisted cultural pressures to give official approval to abortion, homosexual marriage, and the ordination of women.
The Status of the Roman Church from a Protestant Perspective
A good analogy that was used by the Reformers was that of the northern kingdom of Israel. The northern kingdom professed the true God, its members were marked by the sign of the covenant, and there was a remnant of faithful believers in it; yet that kingdom had departed from ordinances God had appointed in Jerusalem, they had substituted for them the idolatrous and corrupt worship of the true God using golden calves, and they were led by kings that made the people to sin in unfaithfulness to their covenant God. Calls were given to the northern kingdom and its members to turn to their Lord and to worship him in Jerusalem.
Calvin compared the Roman Church to ancient Israel when it had fallen into apostasy but nevertheless retained God’s covenant and circumcision, so that the children born of that people were his (Ezek. 16:20-21). He denied that we must maintain fellowship with them and accept their teaching, but also conceded that, “the Lord has left in them some trace and semblance of his church. There is, first, God’s covenant, which cannot be broken, and baptism, which is its sacrament and which, being hallowed by the Lord’s mouth, retains its force despite the impiety of man. To sum up, we do not at all deny that in them exists a church, nor do we simply affirm it without qualification. These are churches to the extent that our Lord preserves in them the remnants of his people who are miserably scattered among them; to the extent, too, that they retain some marks of the church, especially those whose effectiveness cannot be destroyed either by the devil’s wiles or by human wickedness. On the other hand, because the marks essential to the church we now describe are there erased, if we seek a properly ordered church, no lawful form of it will be found there.”
The beliefs of its members are supposed to be whatever the church teaches, but this is often not the case. Their beliefs can be worse than the official dogma, but their beliefs can also be better, especially when they have been influenced by Protestants. If you are interacting with individuals in the Roman Church, it is important to not jump to conclusions. See what they themselves actually believe (and what they think you believe). Encourage them to be true to their baptism by resting upon Christ alone for their salvation if they don’t already, and by forsaking the false teaching and corrupt worship of the Roman church. Let them know that to leave the Roman church is not to leave the one holy catholic and apostolic church that Christ founded. The Reformers did not found a new church during the Protestant Reformation. They worked to reform the church of Jesus Christ, which already existed.
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